Hanlon v. Chambers
Annotate this Case
September 1995 Term
_________
No. 22595
_________
IRENE HANLON,
Plaintiff Below, Appellant
V.
TERRY CHAMBERS, INDIVIDUALLY
AND DBA CHAMBERS CHIROPRACTIC OFFICES, C.C.,
Defendant Below, Appellee
_______________________________________________________________
APPEAL FROM THE CIRCUIT COURT OF BERKELEY COUNTY
HONORABLE DAVID H. SANDERS, JUDGE
CIVIL ACTION NO. 93-C-967
REVERSED AND REMANDED
WITH DIRECTIONS
_______________________________________________________________
Submitted: September 13, 1995
Filed: October 26, 1995
Lauren Clingan
David M. Hammer
Robert J. Schiavoni
Hammer, Ferretti & Schiavoni
Martinsburg, West Virginia
Attorneys for Appellant
Barry P. Beck
Martin & Seibert
Martinsburg, West Virginia
Attorney for Appellee
JUSTICE CLECKLEY delivered the Opinion of the Court.
RETIRED JUSTICE MILLER sitting by temporary assignment.
JUSTICE ALBRIGHT did not participate.
SYLLABUS BY THE COURT
1. "'A circuit court's entry of summary judgment is reviewed de novo.' Syl.
pt. 1, Painter v. Peavy, 192 W. Va. 189, 451 S.E.2d 755 (1994)." Syl. pt. 1, Jones v.
Wesbanco Bank Parkersburg, ___ W. Va. ___, 460 S.E.2d 627 (1995).
2. "'"'A motion for summary judgment should be granted only when it is
clear that there is no genuine issue of fact to be tried and inquiry concerning the facts is not
desirable to clarify the application of the law.' Syllabus Point 3, Aetna Casualty & Surety
Co. v. Federal Insurance Co. of New York, 148 W. Va. 160, 133 S.E.2d 770 (1963)."
Syllabus Point 1, Andrick v. Town of Buckhannon, 187 W. Va. 706, 421 S.E.2d 247 (1992).'
Syl. pt. 2, Painter v. Peavy, 192 W. Va. 189, 451 S.E.2d 755 (1994)." Syl. pt. 2, Jones v.
Wesbanco Bank Parkersburg, ___ W. Va. ___, 460 S.E.2d 627 (1995).
3. In most discrimination cases, once a plaintiff's allegations and evidence
create a prima facie case (showing circumstances that permit an inference of discrimination
on an impermissible bias), unless the employer comes forward with evidence of a dispositive
nondiscriminatory reason as to which there is no genuine issue and which no rational trier
of fact could reject, the conflict between the plaintiff's evidence establishing a prima facie
case and the employer's evidence of a nondiscriminatory reason reflects a question of fact
to be resolved by the factfinder after trial.
4. Although the plaintiff has the ultimate burden of proving elements of
the claim of discrimination by a preponderance of the evidence, the showing the plaintiff
must make as to the elements of the prima facie case in order to defeat a motion for summary
judgment is de minimis. In determining whether the plaintiff has met the de minimis initial
burden of showing circumstances giving rise to an inference of discrimination, the function
of the circuit court on a summary judgment motion is to determine whether the proffered
admissible evidence shows circumstances that would be sufficient to permit a rational finder
of fact to infer a discriminatory motive. It is not the province of the circuit court itself to
decide what inferences should be drawn.
5. To establish a claim for sexual harassment under the West Virginia
Human Rights Act, W. Va. Code, 5-11-1, et seq., based upon a hostile or abusive work
environment, a plaintiff-employee must prove that (1) the subject conduct was unwelcome;
(2) it was based on the sex of the plaintiff; (3) it was sufficiently severe or pervasive to alter
the plaintiff's conditions of employment and create an abusive work environment; and (4) it
was imputable on some factual basis to the employer.
6. A supervisor is an employee under the West Virginia Human Rights
Act, W. Va. Code 5-11-3(e) (1992), at least where the individual is not a partner, owner, or
part-owner.
7. An employee may state a claim for hostile environment sexual
harassment if unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or
physical conduct of a sexual nature has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with
an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working
environment.
8. The West Virginia Human Rights Act, W. Va. Code 5-11-9(1) (1992),
imposes a duty on employers to ensure that workplaces are free of sexual harassment from
whatever source.
9. A supervisory employee can state a claim for relief against an employer
on the basis of a hostile work environment created by one or more subordinate employees
if the employer knew or should have known about the offending conduct, yet failed to take
swift and effective measures reasonably calculated to end the harassment.
10. "'In an action to redress an unlawful retaliatory discharge under the
West Virginia Human Rights Act, W. Va. Code, 5-11-1, et seq., as amended, the burden is
upon the complainant to prove by a preponderance of the evidence (1) that the complainant
engaged in protected activity, (2) that complainant's employer was aware of the protected
activities, (3) that complainant was subsequently discharged and (absent other evidence
tending to establish a retaliatory motivation), (4) that complainant's discharge followed his or her protected activities within such period of time that the court can infer retaliatory
motivation.' Syl. pt. 4, Frank's Shoe Store v. West Virginia Human Rights Commission, 179
W. Va. 53, 365 S.E.2d 251 (1986)." Syl. pt. 1, Brammer v. Human Rights Commission, 183
W. Va. 108, 394 S.E.2d 340 (1990).
11. W. Va. Code 5-11-9(7)(C) (1992), prohibits an employer or other
person from retaliating against any individual for expressing opposition to a practice that he
or she reasonably and in good faith believes violates the provisions of the West Virginia
Human Rights Act.
Cleckley, Justice:
The plaintiff below and appellant herein, Irene Hanlon, appeals an order of the
Circuit Court of Berkeley County granting summary judgment in favor of the defendant
below and appellee herein, Terry Chambers, who was sued individually and through his
business, the Chambers Chiropractic Offices, C.C.
I.
FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
From January 6, 1992, until April 15, 1993, the plaintiff worked as a Marketing
Director at the Chambers Chiropractic Offices, which is owned and operated by Terry
Chambers. The precise scope of the plaintiff's responsibilities and supervisory authority is
disputed. The plaintiff admits she had the duty to supervise the office, but she denies she
had the authority to make personnel decisions and, in particular, to fire other employees
without consultation with the defendant, Dr. Chambers. The defendant asserts, however, that
the plaintiff "had direct supervisory responsibility for all employees within the Marketing
Department, including the authority to hire, discipline and terminate."
One of the employees supervised by the plaintiff during her employment with
the defendant was Jim Embrey. Mr. Embrey was hired during January of 1993, as a part-
time hourly employee. The plaintiff asserts she was sexually harassed by Mr. Embrey during her employment with the defendant and she informed the defendant about Mr. Embrey's
behavior. Plaintiff stated during her deposition that, on two occasions, she informed the
defendant she could handle the situation. She also testified the defendant never did anything
to discourage her from disciplining Mr. Embrey.
In March of 1992, the defendant hired a management consultant to study his
chiropractic business. The defendant maintains that the consultant recommended eliminating
the plaintiff's position and that the recommendation prompted her subsequent release. On
April 9, 1993, prior to the defendant's informing the plaintiff of her layoff, the plaintiff
requested a meeting with the defendant and his office manager, Donna Hollida, to discuss
Mr. Embrey's actions. The defendant asserts that he investigated the plaintiff's claims
immediately after the meeting on April 9, and that he proceeded with his plan to eliminate
the Marketing Director position, after concluding there was insufficient evidence to justify
the plaintiff's claims of sexual harassment.
The plaintiff filed her complaint with the Berkeley County Circuit Court on
October 4, 1993, alleging two theories: (1) the defendant fired her in retaliation for her
complaints about the sexual harassment, and (2) the defendant failed to "maintain a work
environment free from sexual harassment by failing to promptly investigate complaints of
sexual harassment and by failing to take necessary remedial actions." After limited discoverySee footnote 1, the defendant moved for summary judgment. In a written order dated April 6,
1994, the circuit court granted the defendant's motion finding the plaintiff either had direct
supervisory authority, as suggested by the defendant, or at least had the power to recommend
personnel decisions to the defendant. The circuit court noted "[s]exual harassment in the
workplace is essentially an abuse of power" and thus interpreted the West Virginia Human
Rights Act, W. Va. Code, 5-11-1, et seq., as protecting powerless employees who have no
other legitimate avenue of relief. Furthermore, the circuit court held that supervisors, as
agents of the employer, have the responsibility to prevent sexual harassment in the
workplace. The circuit court reasoned that permitting supervisors to sue employers for the
harassment by subordinates would subject employers to the "ultimate 'Catch-22'" by forcing
them to hire supervisors to watch supervisors and so on.
The circuit court thus ruled in favor of the defendant based on its determination
that supervisory employees may not maintain a cause of action against an employer for the
sexual harassment of the supervisor by a subordinate employee. The circuit court also
concluded that complaints about subordinate harassment could not, therefore, be in
opposition to "any practices or acts forbidden under" the Human Rights Act. W. Va. Code
5-11-9(7)(C) (1992). As a consequence, the circuit court also dismissed the plaintiff's
retaliatory discharge claim. The plaintiff appeals from the entry of the summary judgment.
II.
DISCUSSION
A.
Standard of Review
When considering a circuit court's grant of summary judgment, this Court
noted in Syllabus Points 1 and 2 of Jones v. Wesbanco Bank Parkersburg, ___ W. Va. ___,
460 S.E.2d 627 (1995):
"1. 'A circuit court's entry of summary judgment
is reviewed de novo.' Syl. pt. 1, Painter v. Peavy, 192 W. Va.
189, 451 S.E.2d 755 (1994).
"2. '"'A motion for summary judgment should be granted
only when it is clear that there is no genuine issue of fact to be tried
and inquiry concerning the facts is not desirable to clarify the
application of the law.' Syllabus Point 3, Aetna Casualty & Surety Co.
v. Federal Insurance Co. of New York, 148 W. Va. 160, 133 S.E.2d 770 (1963)." Syllabus Point 1, Andrick v. Town of Buckhannon, 187
W. Va. 706, 421 S.E.2d 247 (1992).' Syl. pt. 2, Painter v. Peavy, 192
W. Va. 189, 451 S.E.2d 755 (1994)."
A motion for summary judgment may not be granted unless the circuit court determines there
is no genuine issue of material fact to be tried and the facts as to which there is no such issue
warrant judgment for the moving party as a matter of law. See, e.g. W. Va. R.Civ.P 56(c).
See generally Williams v. Precision Coil, Inc., ___ W. Va. ___, 459 S.E.2d 329 (1995);
Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 106 S. Ct. 2548, 91 L.E.2d 265 (1986). The burden
of showing that no genuine factual dispute exists rests on the party seeking summary
judgment; in assessing the record to determine whether there is a genuine issue as to any material facts, the circuit court is required to resolve all ambiguities and draw all factual
inferences in favor of the party against whom summary judgment is sought. The inferences
to be drawn from the underlying affidavits, exhibits, answers to interrogatories, and
depositions must be viewed in the light most favorable to the party opposing the motion.
On a motion for summary judgment, neither a trial nor appellate court can try
issues of fact; a determination can only be made as to whether there are issues to be tried.
To be specific, if there is any evidence in the record from any source from which a
reasonable inference can be drawn in favor of the nonmoving party, summary judgment is
improper. As succinctly stated in both Peavy and Williams, in reviewing a grant of summary
judgment, this Court is governed by the same principles and we review the record de novo.
Although we have said that Rule 56 of the West Virginia Rules of Civil
Procedure applies equally to claims of discrimination,See footnote 2 we suggested in Williams a cautious
approach to summary judgment motions where issues of motive and intent must be resolved.See footnote 3 In most discrimination cases, once a plaintiff's allegations and evidence create a prima facie
case (showing circumstances that permit an inference of discrimination on an impermissible
bias), unless the employer comes forward with evidence of a dispositive nondiscriminatory
reason as to which there is no genuine issue and which no rational trier of fact could reject,
the conflict between the plaintiff's evidence establishing a prima facie case and the
employer's evidence of a nondiscriminatory reason reflects a question of fact to be resolved
by the factfinder at trial. See generally Barefoot v. Sundale Nursing Home, 193 W. Va. 475,
457 S.E.2d 152 (1995).See footnote 4
It is significant to understand that in discrimination cases, although the plaintiff
has the ultimate burden of proving elements of the claim by a preponderance of the evidence,
the showing the plaintiff must make as to the elements of the prima facie case in order to
defeat a motion for summary judgment is "de minimis." Chambers v. TRM Copy Centers
Corp., 43 F.3d 29, 37 (2nd Cir. 1994). In determining whether the plaintiff has met the de
minimis initial burden of showing
"'circumstances giving rise to an inference of discrimination,' the
function of the court on a summary judgment motion is to
determine whether the 'proffered admissible evidence shows
circumstances that would be sufficient to permit a rational finder
of fact to infer a discriminatory motive. It is not the province of
the summary judgment court itself to decide what inferences
should be drawn.'" Cronin v. Aetna Life Ins. Co., 46 F.3d 196,
204 (2nd Cir. 1995). (Citation omitted).
To be sure, summary judgment has a special niche in civil litigation. Its role
is to pierce the boilerplate of the pleadings and assay the parties' proof in order to determine
whether a trial is actually required. The device allows courts and litigants to avoid full
blown trials in unwinable cases, thus conserving the parties' time and money and permitting
courts to husband scarce judicial resources. However, although summary judgment is the
appropriate device for putting a swift end to meritless litigation, Rule 56(c) of the Rules of Civil ProcedureSee footnote 5 implicitly forbids courts from entering summary judgment where there are
material and genuine issues of fact to be resolved.
Even "[i]f there is no genuine issue of material fact in dispute, . . . we [must]
next determine if the substantive law was correctly applied by the . . . [circuit] court."
Hirase-Doi v. U.S. West Communications, Inc., 61 F.3d 777, 781 (10th Cir. 1995). Based
upon our de novo review of the record, we find the circuit court erred in its interpretation and
application of the applicable law and in its holding that no genuine issues of material fact
exist.
B.
Subordinate Harassment of a Supervisor
The defendant asserts that summary judgment should be upheld because the
Human Rights Act does not provide for a cause of action against employers by supervisory
employees who claim to have been sexually harassed by subordinate employees. We reject
the defendant's contention.
To establish a claim for sexual harassment based upon a hostile or abusive
work environment under the Human Rights Act, a plaintiff-employee must prove that (1) the
subject conduct was unwelcome; (2) it was based on the sex of the plaintiff; (3) it was
"'sufficiently severe or pervasive to alter the . . . [plaintiff's] conditions of employment and
create an abusive work environment'"; and (4) it was imputable on some factual basis to the
employer. Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc., ___ U.S. ___, ___, 114 S. Ct. 367, 370, 126 L. Ed. 2d 295, 301-02 (1993). (Citation omitted).
Certainly, a supervisor is an employee under the Human Rights Act,See footnote 6 at least
where the individual is not a partner, owner, or part-owner.See footnote 7 The defendant does not
seriously dispute this conclusion, but argues that supervisors-employees (or at least some of
them) do not enjoy the same level of protection from sexual harassment.
Our case law, Westmoreland Coal Co. v. West Virginia Human Rights
Commission, 181 W. Va. 368, 382 S.E.2d 562 (1989); the Human Rights Commission (HRC) regulations, 6 W. Va. C.S.R. § 77-4-3 (1992); the federal authorities, Harris v.
Forklift Systems, Inc., supra; Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 106 S. Ct. 2399,
91 L. Ed. 2d 49 (1986); and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
regulations, 29 C.F.R. § 1604.11 (1980), recognize two types of sexual harassment. First,
in quid pro quo harassment, an employer or its agent conditions an employee's job,
employment benefits, or continued employment on his or her consent to participate in sex.
Second, in hostile environment harassment, which is alleged here, an employer
"discriminate[s] against . . . [a female employee] with respect to . . . conditions or privileges
of employment[,]" when the workplace is infected, for example, by sexual barbs or
innuendos, offensive touching, or dirty tricks aimed at the employee because of her gender.
W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(1) (1992). In these cases, women are denied an equal opportunity in
the workplace because, unlike their male counterparts, they must work in an atmosphere they
find emotionally oppressive.
Creating a per se rule that prohibits recovery by supervisors removes a distinct
group of individuals from the protection of the Act. As mentioned above, see note 1, supra,
the Human Rights Act is a broad statute that attempts to protect the rights of individuals.
Nothing in the Act cautions against its application to claims by a supervisor. Moreover, the
legislative rules support protection of supervisors. Section 2.2 of 6 W. Va. C.S.R. § 77-4-2
(1992) defines the parameters of sexual harassment:
"2.2 Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for
sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual
nature constitute sexual harassment when:
* * *
"2.2.3 Such conduct has the purpose or
effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual's work
performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive
working environment."
Additionally, Section 2.1 of 6 W. Va. C.S.R. § 77-4-2 (1992) interprets the Human Rights
Act as affording "employees the right to work in an environment free from discriminatory
intimidation, ridicule, or insult." These rules and the Human Rights Act are generally for the
express purpose of protecting the rights of all individuals in the employment context.
When sexual harassment occurs, the identity of the perpetrator is irrelevant to
the victimized employee. A hostile environment can be just as oppressive when it is created
by co-workers, subordinates, or customers as when it is caused by a superior. Case law
under Title VII, EEOC regulations, and HRC regulations concur that co-workers and
customers can cause a hostile environment. E.g., Davis v. Tri-State Mack Distribs., Inc., 981 F.2d 340 (8th Cir. 1992) (co-workers); Daniels v. Essex Group, Inc., 937 F.2d 1264 (7th Cir.
1991) (co-workers); EEOC v. Sage Realty Corp., 507 F. Supp. 599 (S.D.N.Y. 1981)
(customers); King v. Chrysler Corp., 812 F. Supp. 151 (E.D. Mo. E.D. 1993) (patrons); 29
C.F.R. § 1604.11(d) (1980) (fellow employees); 29 C.F.R. § 1604.11(e) (1980) (non-employees); 6 W. Va. C.S.R. § 77-4-3.2 (1992) (co-workers).See footnote 8 We see no reason in the
Human Rights Act or in right and reason to reach a different result when the hostile
environment is created by a subordinate. Put another way, we hold that the Human Rights
Act imposes a duty on employers in this State to ensure that workplaces are free of sexual
harassment from whatever source.
An employer, however, is not strictly liable, at least not in all cases, for sexual
harassment and proof of a hostile environment does not automatically establish employer
liability. It is at this point that the source of the harassment becomes relevant. Where an
agent or supervisor of an employer has caused, contributed to, or acquiesced in the
harassment, then such conduct is attributed to the employer, and it can be fairly said that the
employer is strictly liable for the damages that result. When the source of the harassment
is a person's co-workers and does not include management personnel, the employer's liability
is determined by its knowledge of the offending conduct, the effectiveness of its remedial
procedures, and the adequacy of its response. Thus, an employer that has established clear rules forbidding sexual harassment and has provided an effective mechanism for receiving,
investigating, and resolving complaints of harassment may not be liable in a case of co-
worker harassment where the employer had neither knowledge of the misconduct nor reason
to know of it.See footnote 9 In such a case, the employer has done all that it can do to prevent harassment,
and the employer cannot be charged with responsibility for the victim's failure to complain.See footnote 10
We see no reason for a different analysis to apply where the harasser is a
subordinate of the victim. The employer's duty remains the same: it must do what it can to
prevent harassment and must respond swiftly and effectively to complaints about harassment.
The sufficiency of the employer's response determines its legal responsibility. It is not
irrelevant in making that determination, however, that the harassing employee was a
subordinate of his victim; that fact is just not an end-all. Each case will turn on its own
particular circumstances. For example, if a supervisor complains to her employer of a
subordinate's harassment and the employer responds, "You take care of it," that may in some
cases be sufficient -- if the supervisor has full disciplinary authority and circumstances permit use of it. In other cases, however, that response may be inadequate. The harassed
supervisor could be the object of an entire crew of male harassers and would likely need
greater assistance from her employer than a flippant, "You handle it." Similarly, the power
to discipline a six-foot, five-inch, 300-pound ex-felon with a history of violence may not be
terribly comforting to a lot of women supervisors. The point is that common sense must be
applied to the facts in each case to determine whether the employer took direct and prompt
action "'reasonably calculated' to end the harassment." B. Lindemann & D.D. Kadue, Sexual
Harassment in Employment Law 195-96 (1992), citing Waltman v. International Paper Co.,
875 F.2d 468, 469 (5th Cir. 1989). See also Huddleston v. Roger Dean Chevrolet, 845 F.2d 900 (11th Cir. 1988); Barrett v. Omaha National Bank, 726 F.2d 424 (8th Cir. 1984).See footnote 11
The facts in this case are ambiguous. According to the plaintiff, when she
informed the defendant of Mr. Embrey's conduct, the doctor responded, "Can you handle it?"
and she said she could. The defendant disputes this assertion. Whether that was enough
requires factual development. The nature of the conversation between the parties, the
personalities of the plaintiff and Mr. Embrey, the clarity and extent of the plaintiff's authority
to discipline Mr. Embrey,See footnote 12 the employer's past practices with respect to personnel matters, the existence of a disciplinary grievance process, and the nature of the alleged harassment --
to name a few potentially relevant considerations -- could all weigh on assessing the
sufficiency and validity of the defendant's response. Of course, the factfinder could also
conclude that it believes the defendant's version that the conversations never occurred and
that he did not learn of the alleged harassment until shortly before the plaintiff's discharge.
We intimate no view on how these factual issues should be resolved. Rather, we simply
emphasize that this is a very fact-specific case that requires very careful factual
determinations.See footnote 13
The defendant and the circuit court have contended that fair employment laws
generally, and sexual harassment doctrines in particular, reflect a legislative desire to protect workers in protected classes from injury caused by an abuse of power; therefore, they
contend the law does not extend to a subordinate's harassment of a supervisor. To be sure,
Title VII and the Human Rights Act do address power imbalances in the employment
context; the statutes reflect a recognition that protected classes historically have been
concentrated in the lower rungs of the workplace hierarchy and their members are
vulnerable. See, e.g., International Bhd. of Teamsters v. United States, 431 U.S. 324, 97 S. Ct. 1843, 52 L. Ed. 2d 396 (1977). Certainly, the typical quid pro quo sexual harassment case
involves a supervisor using his or her authority over a subordinate to control and/or
intimidate the subordinate. It would be difficult to conceive how any employer or agent
could exact a quid if the person did not have the power to provide the quo.See footnote 14
Having conceded the above, we do not see how perceiving the fair employment
laws as primarily, or even exclusively, concerned with an abuse of power prevents this case
from going forward. To conclude that a supervisor harassed by subordinates cannot be
victimized by an abuse of power would ignore the reality of what women encounter in the
workplace. For example, a female supervisor who is set upon by male subordinates and
targeted to be a failure would surely be a victim of male dominance. (This would be especially true if the workplace traditionally has been a male environment.) A supervisor
assaulted by a male subordinate of superior physical strength or subjected to repeated
exposure to pornography is in each case a victim of a male-ordered hierarchy.See footnote 15 Nor do we
necessarily agree with the circuit court's conclusion that the alleged harassment in this case
could not have involved an abuse of power because the harassment came from a subordinate.
If the plaintiff proves employer insensitivity or unconcern, she proves an abuse. If the
plaintiff proves a "good ole' boy" environment in which the employer tolerated Mr. Embrey's
behavior and failed to back women managers, she proves an abuse. If the plaintiff proves
that Mr. Embrey created in her a reasonable fear of physical retaliation or a fear for her own
safety, she proves an abuse. These are just examples, but they illustrate that the interaction
of power and gender in the workplace cannot be reduced to mechanical inquiries about the
relative status of the plaintiff in the employment hierarchy.
The bottom line, however, is that it does not really matter for purposes of the
Human Rights Act whether the plaintiff was a victim of a power play. We do not perceive
"discrimination" as necessarily synonymous with an abuse of power. More importantly, we
do not find an inquiry into power to be a useful part of our fair employment doctrine. As a
practical matter, any doctrinal standard that includes a requirement that a plaintiff must
establish some abuse of power is simply unworkable. The concept is far too subtle and formlessSee footnote 16 for judges and juries to apply in a consistent manner, especially in hostile
environment cases. Instead, we believe that a doctrine that first inquires into whether the
plaintiff was subjected to a sexually hostile work environment, then decides if the employer
knew or should have known of the hostility, and concludes by gauging the sufficiency of the
employer's response provides both a workable framework and a fair accommodation of
employer and employee interests.See footnote 17
Whether the plaintiff's work environment was hostile and whether the
defendant-employer met his duty in this particular case were clearly matters of factual
dispute. A remand for development and findings of the facts is therefore necessary.
C.
Retaliation
The plaintiff also claims the defendant violated the Human Rights Act when
he discharged her because he allegedly did so in retaliation for her complaints about Mr.
Embrey's sexual harassment. Thus, the plaintiff contends the discharge effected a retaliation
against her for her opposition to an employment practice made unlawful by the Act. W. Va.
Code, 5-11-9(7)(C). To establish such a claim by circumstantial evidence, the plaintiff must
adduce facts sufficient to raise an inference that retaliatory motive played a part in her
removal. In Syllabus Point 1 of Brammer v. Human Rights Commission, 183 W. Va. 108,
394 S.E.2d 340 (1990), we described a set of facts that would create a prima facie case of
retaliation:
"'In an action to redress an unlawful retaliatory
discharge under the West Virginia Human Rights Act, W. Va.
Code, 5-11-1, et seq., as amended, the burden is upon the
complainant to prove by a preponderance of the evidence (1)
that the complainant engaged in protected activity, (2) that
complainant's employer was aware of the protected activities,
(3) that complainant was subsequently discharged and (absent
other evidence tending to establish a retaliatory motivation), (4)
that complainant's discharge followed his or her protected
activities within such period of time that the court can infer
retaliatory motivation.' Syl. pt. 4, Frank's Shoe Store v. West
Virginia Human Rights Commission, 179 W. Va. 53, 365 S.E.2d 251 (1986)."See footnote 18
The defendant contends, among other things, that the plaintiff failed to
establish this prima facie case because she had not engaged in protected activity, i.e., she had
not opposed a practice prohibited by the Act. Under the defendant's theory, there was no
protected opposition because the plaintiff complained about a subordinate's harassment of
her, and such harassment was not a practice prohibited by the Act. Thus, even if the plaintiff
complained, and even if the defendant discharged her because of those complaints, she still
could not state a claim for relief since her complaints did not pertain to a prohibited practice.
We have already ruled that subordinate harassment can violate the Act. That fact alone
requires reversal. For reasons stated below, we also conclude the circuit court applied an
incorrect standard for determining when the opposition clause in W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(7),
may be invoked.
Under W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(7)(C), protected opposition is that which
challenges "any practices or acts forbidden under this [Act]." Although we have not
previously had an occasion to apply that language, numerous courts have construed similar
language in Section (7)(C)'s federal analogue, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, §
704(b), 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a).See footnote 19 Some of those courts have held that opposition is protected if the plaintiff-employee had a good faith belief that the practice opposed violated
the statute, e.g., Monteiro v. Poole Silver Co., 615 F.2d 4 (1st Cir. 1980), while others have
used either an objective test, e.g., Drinkwater v. Union Carbide Corp., 904 F.2d 853 (3rd Cir.
1990) (reasonable belief); Berg v. LaCrosse Cooler Co., 612 F.2d 1041 (7th Cir. 1980)
(reasonable belief); Learned v. City of Bellevue, 860 F.2d 928 (9th Cir. 1988), cert. denied,
489 U.S. 1079, 109 S. Ct. 1530, 103 L. Ed. 2d 835 (1989); or required both good faith and a
reasonable belief in the illegality of the opposed practice. Holland v. Jefferson National Life
Ins. Co., 883 F.2d 1307 (7th Cir. 1989); Rucker v. Higher Educ. Aids Bd., 669 F.2d 1179
(7th Cir. 1982); Tipton v. Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce, 872 F.2d 1491 (11th Cir.
1989). Another and decidedly minority view would not protect opposition unless it opposed
a practice that actually violated Title VII. E.g., Silver v. KCA, Inc., 586 F.2d 138 (9th Cir.
1978).See footnote 20 See generally Barbara Schlei & Paul Grossman, Employment Discrimination Law
543-48 (2nd ed. 1983 & Cum. Supp. 223-24 (1989)).
We have repeatedly held that we will construe the Human Rights Act to
coincide with the prevailing federal application of Title VII unless there are variations in the statutory language that call for divergent applications or there are some other compelling
reasons justifying a different result. E.g., Barefoot v. Sundale Nursing Home, 193 W. Va.
at ___, 457 S.E.2d at 159; West Virginia Univ. v. Decker, 191 W. Va. 567, 447 S.E.2d 259
(1994); Westmoreland Coal Co. v. West Virginia Human Rights Comm'n, supra; State ex rel.
State Human Rights Comm'n v. Logan-Mingo Area Mental Health Agency, Inc., 174 W. Va.
711, 329 S.E.2d 77 (1985); Shepherdstown V.F.D. v. West Virginia Human Rights Comm'n,
172 W. Va. 627, 309 S.E.2d 342 (1983). Our sense of the prevailing federal standard is that
a plaintiff seeking relief under Section 704(a)'s Opposition Clause must show that his or her
opposition concerned practices that he or she believed were violations of the statute.
We see neither a variation in language nor a good reason to diverge from that
standard with regard to W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(7)(C). In fact, there are compelling reasons
why the section must be so construed. The legislative purpose in including the antiretaliation
provision was obviously to encourage people to come forward and expose unlawful
employment practices and to do so without fear of reprisal. By protecting reasonable, good
faith opposition, the provision also advances the statutory purpose of ending discrimination
by engaging private citizens to help serve as "private attorneys general." An absence of such
protection would create a chilling effect on employees' willingness to join the fight. The
overriding purposes of W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(7)(C), would be wholly defeated if its
protection applied only to those individuals who confidently know the technical area of fair
employment law and who correctly predict how its doctrine will ultimately be applied in a court of law. Given those unpredictable variables, few rational employees would take much
solace in the protection from retaliation offered by such a narrow construction of W. Va.
Code, 5-11-9(7)(C).
This case illustrates another example supporting the prevailing federal view,
that is, in hostile environment harassment cases (sexual, racial, or whatever), the offensive
conduct often does not rise to the level of actionability until after there has been a significant
accumulation of incidents. Both employees and employers would benefit from a standard
that encourages harassed employees to come forward early, well before the ephemeral line
of legal liability has been crossed, in order to root out the problem before it grows into an
unmanageable and costly crisis. See generally Syl. pt. 2, in part, Curry v. Gatson, 180
W. Va. 272, 376 S.E.2d 166 (1988) ("if an employee is sexually or racially harassed at the
workplace and this discriminatory treatment would cause a reasonably prudent person to
resign, such employee is not disqualified from receiving unemployment compensation
benefits").
Accordingly, we hold that W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(7)(C), prohibits an employer
or other person from retaliating against any individual for expressing opposition to a practice
that he or she reasonably and in good faith believes violates the provisions of the Human
Rights Act. This standard has both an objective and a subjective element. The employee's
opposition must be reasonable in the sense that it must be based on a set of facts and a legal theory that are plausible. Further, the view must be honestly held and be more than a cover
for troublemaking.
In applying this standard to the plaintiff, we have no difficulty in concluding
that her objections to Mr. Embrey's conduct brought her within the opposition clause of W.
Va. Code, 5-11-9(7). Certainly it was reasonable for her to conclude that, if Mr. Embrey's
offensive touching and innuendos continued, they would create a hostile work environment
and deprive her, on the basis of her sex, of a valued condition of employment. Even if, as
the defendant contends, a supervising employee could not, as a matter of law, be harassed
by a subordinate, the plaintiff reasonably could have concluded that a subordinate's
harassment would violate the Human Rights Act. Of course, we have now concluded that
her belief was not only reasonable, but it was also correct.See footnote 21
It is not contested that the plaintiff complained about harassment on at least
one occasion. Such a complaint is protected opposition. The plaintiff alleged she was fired
within a week after her last complaint. Because of the obvious temporal proximity of the
discharge to the protected activity, the plaintiff stated a prima facie case. The defendant's
response that her discharge was the result of the recommendation of an expert management
consultant simply put the matter of motive at issue. The plaintiff must have an opportunity
to show that the proffered explanation was pretextual or that a retaliatory motive at least
contributed to the discharge decision. Obviously, these matters raise substantial factual
issues. Accordingly, we remand the retaliation claim to the circuit court for a determination
of those issues.
D.
Employer's Concerns
We add this final section to address a set of concerns that were raised by the
circuit court in its decision and by the defendant in this appeal and that cut across both the
harassment and retaliation claims.
The circuit court found the plaintiff could not fit within the sexual harassment
doctrine because supervisors, as agents of the employer, are responsible for preventing
sexual harassment in the workplace. The circuit court feared that providing supervisors with
a cause of action would subject employers to the "ultimate 'Catch-22'"--that is, as best we can
understand, employers have to rely on supervisors to execute sexual harassment policies, but
if a supervisor fails to execute the policy and becomes the object of harassment, to permit
her recovery would make the employer liable for the supervisor's own failure. Accordingly,
the defendant maintains that the Human Rights Act should not impose liability on an
employer if its supervisor "allows herself to be sexually harassed by her subordinates." This
reasoning, if it can be called that, leads to the further argument that the defendant had a
legitimate reason for discharging the plaintiff (separate from the consultant's
recommendation) because when she failed to stop Mr. Embrey's sexual harassment, she
failed to perform an important part of her job, i.e., the execution of the employer's policy
against sexual harassment. The defendant further maintains that imposing liability in this
case would discourage employers from hiring a woman as a supervisor out of a fear that "she
could sue him if she fails to perform her job and permits a subordinate to sexually harass
her."
We see no "Catch 22" for employers who are told they must adopt reasonable
measures to prevent and remedy sexual harassment in the workplace, including sexual
harassment of supervisors. Certainly, an employer must rely on supervisors to implement
policy, but, as with any other policy, where a supervisor experiences difficulty, an employer
may have to do more than simply delegate responsibility. That is especially likely when the
supervisor herself is a target of employee misconduct. As we made clear in Part B, supra,
the nature and extent of action required of an employer will vary with the facts. We also
affirmatively reject any suggestion that a supervisor who has been the object of sexual
harassment has in some sense "allowed" it to happen. To say that she is a victim of sexual
harassment states a legal conclusion: she has been required to work in a hostile environment
that has deprived her of reasonable working conditions on the basis of her sex. When an
employer learns that such has taken place, his alternative under the Human Rights Act is to
investigate and, if need be, root out the harassment; it is not to fire the victim. We refuse to
apply the Human Rights Act in such a way as to make the victim the responsible party. We
do not suggest that a female supervisor has any less of a responsibility to implement policy
or is to be held to a lesser standard of managerial ability. Rather, we simply ask employers
to do the reasonable thing: investigate and respond appropriately to complaints about sexual
harassment from whatever source.
It follows, then, that a supervisor's misfortune of being a target of sexual
harassment does not provide her employer with a legitimate reason for discharging her. An employer may, of course, demote or even release a supervisor who fails to abide by and
execute a sexual harassment policy, including the inability to control subordinates who are
engaging in harassment. When the supervisor herself is the victim, however, it would be the
rare case when the particular circumstances would warrant her removal rather than the
removal of the offending employee. It is the employer's responsibility to provide a work
environment free of sexual hostility; if that means the employer must take affirmative
measures over and above reliance on a victimized supervisor, then so be it.
Finally, we also emphatically must reject the defendant's contention that we
should affirm the circuit court's order because, to do otherwise, would discourage employers
from hiring women as supervisors.See footnote 22 In the first place, the argument proves too much; to follow it would require us to reject all claims of sexual harassment because employers will
be reluctant to hire women out of a fear of future sexual harassment suits. Second, an
employer faced with the decision of whether to hire a woman supervisor has two alternatives:
(1) it can forego engaging her because she is a woman and a potential sexual harassment
plaintiff and thereby suffer the loss implicit in hiring a possibly less qualified person while
also exposing itself to clear liability for sex discrimination in hiring under the Human Rights
Act; or (2) it can hire the woman and adopt appropriate measures to prevent and remedy
sexual harassment in its workplace. We think it is clear what a rational employer would do
and what the Human Rights Act requires.
III.
CONCLUSION
We reiterate that we express no opinion on the factual validity of the plaintiff's
claims. Rather, we hold that substantial factual issues must be decided before her claims can
be resolved. For the reasons stated above, the judgment of the Circuit Court of Berkeley
County is reversed and this case is remanded with directions to proceed with the litigation
on both of the plaintiff's claims.
Reversed and remanded with directions.
Footnote: 1
The defendant disputes the plaintiff's claim that discovery was inadequate. Footnote: 2
Even in discrimination cases, "summary judgment may be appropriate" where the
party resisting judgment relies "upon conclusory allegations, improbable inferences, and
unsupported speculation" as to any essential element in the claim. See Medina-Munoz v.
R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., 896 F.2d 5, 8 (1st Cir. 1990). Footnote: 3
In general, a plaintiff asserting an employment harassment or discrimination claim
has the burden at the outset of presenting evidence sufficient to establish a prima facie
case of harassment or discrimination. See Barefoot v. Sundale Nursing Home, 193 W.
Va. 475, 457 S.E.2d 152(1995); St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks, ___ U.S. ___, ___,
113 S. Ct. 2742, 2746-47, 125 L. Ed. 2d 407, 415-16 (1993) ("Hicks"). Once the plaintiff
has adduced evidence sufficient to establish a prima facie case, the employer must then
come forward with reasons justifying a finding that unlawful discrimination was not the
cause of the employment action. If the employer succeeds, the presumption of
discrimination raised by the plaintiff's prima facie case showing "drops out of the
picture." Hicks, ___ U.S. at ___, 113 S. Ct. at 2749, 125 L. Ed. 2d at 418. Although the
plaintiff has the ultimate burden of persuasion to demonstrate that the challenged
employment discrimination was the result of illegal conduct by the employer, the plaintiff
is not required to show that the employer's proffered reasons were false or played no role
in the employment decision. The plaintiff is only required to show that the reasons were
not the only factors and that the prohibited factor was at least one of the motivating
factors. See. e.g. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228, 247-49, 109 S. Ct. 1775,
1788-90, 104 L. Ed. 2d 268, 285-87 (1989), superseded by statute as stated in Stender v.
Lucky Store, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 1302 (N.D. Cal. 1992).Footnote: 4
In assessing the inferences that may be drawn from the circumstances surrounding
a termination of employment, the circuit court must be alert to the fact "[e]mployers are
rarely so cooperative as to include a notation in the personnel file" that their actions were
motivated by factors expressly forbidden by law. Thornbrough v. Columbus and
Greenville Railroad Co., 760 F.2d 633, 638 (5th Cir. 1985), abrogated by St. Mary's
Honor Center v. Hicks, supra. As a result, a victim of discrimination is seldom able to
prove a claim by direct evidence and is usually constrained to rely on circumstantial
evidence. Footnote: 5
Rule 56(c) of the Rules of Civil Procedure states:
"Motion and proceedings thereon.--The motion
shall be served at least 10 days before the time fixed for the
hearing. The adverse party prior to the day of hearing may
serve opposing affidavits. The judgment sought shall be
rendered forthwith if the pleadings, depositions, answers to
interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the
affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue as to any
material fact and that the moving party is entitled to a
judgment as a matter of law. A summary judgment,
interlocutory in character, may be rendered don the issue of
liability alone although there is a genuine issue as to the
amount of damages." Footnote: 6
W. Va. Code, 5-11-3(e) (1992), defines "employee" only by identifying persons to
be excluded: "The term 'employee' shall not include any individual employed by his
parents, spouse or child, or in the domestic service of any person[.]" An "employer" is
"any person employing twelve or more persons within the state[,]" and "[t]he term
'person' means one or more individuals, partnerships, associations, organizations,
corporations, labor organizations, cooperatives, legal representatives, trustees, trustees in
bankruptcy, receivers and other organized groups of persons[.]" W. Va. Code, 5-11-3(d)
& -3(a) (1992), respectively. These sections were amended in 1994. However, the
amendments do not affect this case.
These comprehensive definitions make apparent the legislative desire that
they be broadly construed to maximize the Act's protection and in a manner consistent
with their ordinary, common-sense meaning. See W. Va. Code 5-11-2 (1989)
(declaration of legislative policy); Skaff v. West Va. Human Rights Comm'n, 191 W. Va.
161, 162, 444 S.E.2d 39, 40 (1994) ("'[t]he West Virginia Human Rights Act "shall be
liberally construed to accomplish its objective and purpose." W. Va. Code, 5-11-15
(1967)[,]'" quoting Syl. pt. 1, in part, Paxton v. Crabtree, 184 W. Va. 237, 400 S.E.2d 245
(1990)). Under that standard, the plaintiff was an employee of the defendant: she was
hired by him to work at his direction in return for a regular salary. The fact that she also
happened to supervise one or more employees hardly removed her from the Act's
protection. Indeed, a civil rights law could not be effective if it protected from
discrimination only people at the bottom of the ladder. Footnote: 7
This case does not require us to determine whether partners or co-owners can be
employees under the Human Rights Act. Cf. Hishon v. King & Spalding, 467 U.S. 69,
79-80, 104 S. Ct. 2229, 2235, 81 L. Ed. 2d 59, 69-70 (1984) (Powell, J., concurring).Footnote: 8
6 W. Va. C.S.R. § 77-4-3.2 (1992) provides:
"With respect to conduct between fellow
employees, an employer is responsible for acts of sexual
harassment in the workplace where the employer (or its
agents or supervisory employees) knew or reasonably should
have known of such conduct, or expressly or implied
authorized or ratified such conduct. As a defense an
employer may show that it took timely and appropriate
corrective action regarding such conduct." Footnote: 9
"Knowledge of work place misconduct may be imputed to an employer by
circumstantial evidence if the conduct is shown to be sufficiently pervasive or repetitive
so that a reasonable employer, intent on complying with . . . [the West Virginia Human
Rights Act] would be aware of the conduct." Spicer v. Commonwealth of Virginia, ___
F.3d ___, ___ (4th Cir. 1995) (en banc) (Nos. 93-2136 & 93-2182 10/2/95). Footnote: 10
This does assume the employer has an effective complaint procedure. See
generally Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. at 72-73, 106 S. Ct. at 2408, 91 L. Ed. 2d at 62-63. Footnote: 11
Although we use gender specific terms in this case, we recognize the possibility
that any individual, male or female, may be sexually harassed. Footnote: 12
The extent of the plaintiff's authority was sharply disputed by the parties. It is
clearly a relevant fact and could have a substantial impact on the ultimate factual
resolution of this case. Contrary to the circuit court's indications, however, we do not
believe that fact is, standing alone, dispositive. Even if the plaintiff had the authority to
fire Mr. Embrey, the defendant still had a duty to provide an harassment-free work
environment, and a variety of circumstances could lead one to the conclusion that he had
to do more than simply rely on the plaintiff's disciplinary authority. Certainly, a
supervisor might be reluctant to impose a serious discipline without the complete backing
of the employer. Moreover, in the context of cases such as this one, the supervisor is
necessarily both the accuser and the victim, and reasonable management practice might
dictate that discipline should therefore be imposed by someone other than the accusing
supervisor. It is up to the circuit court to sort through these and other relevant factors to
reach an appropriate resolution.Footnote: 13
For a good discussion of the factual subleties and a common sense analysis of
them, regarding both the level of misconduct that constituutes harassment and the
sufficiency of an employer's response to complaints about harassment, see Judge Posner's
opinion in Baskerfield v. Culligan, Co., 50 F.3d 428 (7th Cir. 1995). Footnote: 14
The pioneer work by Catherine MacKinnon entitled Sexual Harassment of
Working Women (1979) demonstrated and emphasized the role of male power and
domination in sexual harassment. Ms. MacKinnon's subsequent works have elaborated,
in a variety of contexts, on the interrelationship between male domination and both
physical and civil rights abuses of women. See, e.g., Catherine MacKinnon, Feminism
Unmodified (1987); Catherine MacKinnon, Only Words (1993). Footnote: 15
See, e.g., the works cited in note 14, supra.Footnote: 16
As we discussed above, to conclude that a subordinate's harassment of a
supervisor can never be an abuse of power takes too simplistic a view of workplace and
gender power relationships. What we say here, however, is that determining when power
is abused in cases of subordinate harassment of a supervisor requires an appreciation of
subtleties that is not easily articulated nor conducive to consistent application. Given the
existence of more objective inquiries, we see no utility in further engaging in a power
analysis.Footnote: 17
In other words, we do not equate the third element in a sexual harassment claim,
i.e., that the plaintiff must prove an "abusive work environment," with a requirement that
she establish "an abuse of power." A woman's workplace becomes "abusive" as a result
of conduct directed at her from whatever source: the focus is on the woman and what she
is made to experience and feel in that environment. An abuse of power inquiry focuses
on the wrongdoers and their status and, necessarily, only on those wrongdoers who have
the power to abuse. The text of this opinion makes it clear that we require the former
broader inquiry. Footnote: 18
As is indicated by the parenthetical between factors (3) and (4), a temporal
relationship between the protected conduct and the discharge is not the only, or a
required, basis for establishing a causal relationship between the two. We need not go
beyond the Brammer/Frank's factors in this case, however, because the plaintiff alleged
she was discharged within one week after discussing Mr. Embrey's alleged harassment
with the defendant. Illegal retaliation can also come in forms other than a discharge.Footnote: 19
Section 704(b) makes it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against any
employee or applicant "because he has opposed any practice made an unlawful
employment practice by this" title.Footnote: 20
The Silver decision would appear to have been superseded by subsequent Ninth
Circuit decisions that looked only to the reasonableness of the plaintiff's opposition.
Learned, supra; EEOC v. Crown Zellerbach Corp., 720 F.2d 1008 (9th Cir. 1983); Sias v.
City Demonstration Agency, 588 F.2d 692 (9th Cir. 1978).Footnote: 21
That fact alone distinguishes the two authorities upon which the defendant places
primary reliance. Applying Section 704(a) of Title VII, Crowley v. Prince George's
County, Md., 890 F.2d 683 (4th Cir. 1989), held that complaints about racial harassment
of citizens by the defendant's police department were not protected opposition, and
Holden v. Owens-Illinois, Inc., 793 F.2d 745 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 1008, 107 S. Ct. 649, 93 L. Ed. 2d 704 (1986), reached the same conclusion regarding a plaintiff's
efforts to implement an affirmative action plan. For additional reasons, we do not believe
that these decisions are inconsistent with our ruling. The Fourth Circuit concluded in
Crowley that the plaintiff's opposition to racial harassment of citizens by police was not
protected activity because such harassment is not even an employment practice, which is
all that Title VII governs. The Holden court concluded that aggressive and zealous
efforts to implement an affirmative action plan under Executive Order 11,246 did not
oppose any practice made unlawful by Title VII because not only does that statute not
require employers to have affirmative action plans, but Section 703(j), 42 U.S.C. §
2000e-2(j), expressly provides that nothing in the statute "'shall be interpreted to require
any employer . . . to grant preferential treatment to any individual or to any group because
of the race, color, religion, sex, or national origin of such individual or group[.]'" Given
those facts and the clarity of Title VII's nonapplication to the opposed practices, the court
in each of those cases could legitimately conclude that the plaintiff's belief that he was
opposing a Title VII violation was not reasonable.
We express no opinion about whether we would reach the same conclusions
applying the reasonable, good faith standard. We point out, however,
that Crowley's facts might not produce the same result under our Human Rights Act
because Section (7)(C) protects opposition to not only unlawful employment practices (as
is the case with Title VII), but also to other forms of discrimination prohibited by the Act.
W. Va. Code, 5-11-9(6) and -9(7)(A) (1992), could be relevant in such a case.Footnote: 22
Defendant cites Hochstadt v. Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology,
545 F.2d. 222 (1st Cir. 1976), as support for that proposition. Hochstadt sustained an
employer's defense to a claim under the Opposition Clause in Section 704(a), 42 U.S.C. §
2000e-3(a), and held that the employer had a legitimate reason for firing an employee
whose opposition was excessive and disruptive. In so holding, the court stated,
"[a]llowing an employee to invoke the protection of section 704(a) for conduct aimed at
achieving purely ulterior objectives, or for conduct aimed at achieving even proper
objectives through the use of improper means, could have an effect directly contrary to
Congress's goal, by discouraging employers from hiring persons whom the Act is
designed to protect." 545 F.2d at 231. Frankly, the First Circuit's reasoning makes no
sense to this Court -- why an employer would be reluctant to hire women and minorities
because of a rule that requires it to continue the employment of an excessively strident
opponent (who may or may not be a woman or minority person) of unlawful practices is
beyond us. In any event, as we explain in the text,
infra, we do not believe that protecting supervisors from sexual harassment will create
any significant disincentive to the hiring or promotion of women. To the extent that it
would create any disincentive at all, we will rely on the Human Rights Act's prohibition
against sex discrimination in hiring and promotions to overcome it.
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