U.S. Federal Case Law

While Congress passes laws, and federal agencies promulgate regulations, the meaning of these laws and regulations ultimately depends on how federal courts interpret them. A three-tier hierarchy forms the center of the federal judicial system, extending upward from the U.S. District Courts (trial courts) to the U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals (intermediate appellate courts) and ultimately to the U.S. Supreme Court.

U.S. District Courts may hear only certain types of cases. Most notably, these include federal criminal prosecutions and civil cases involving either federal question jurisdiction or diversity jurisdiction. Federal question jurisdiction means that the case hinges on the U.S. Constitution or a federal law or treaty. Diversity jurisdiction arises when no plaintiff is from the same state as any defendant, and more than $75,000 is at stake in the dispute. If a plaintiff files a case in state court that could be heard in a District Court, a defendant usually may ask to have the case “removed” to the District Court.

Congress also has established various other federal courts that focus on narrow subjects. For example, someone bringing a contract claim for more than $10,000 in damages against the federal government likely would need to file in the U.S. Court of Federal Claims.

U.S. Supreme Court

The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest tribunal in the United States. Its interpretations of federal law and the U.S. Constitution are binding on all other courts.

U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals

The U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals are the main intermediate appellate courts in the federal judicial system. Most Circuit Courts have jurisdiction over a designated geographical region. The Federal Circuit has nationwide jurisdiction over specific types of appeals, such as certain matters involving patents, trademarks, international trade, and government contracts.

You can also explore decisions by the Circuit Courts in the following official reporters:

Decisions by a Circuit Court other than the Federal Circuit are binding only in its region. A party who disagrees with a decision by a Circuit Court may appeal to the Supreme Court, but it selects only a small percentage of these appeals for review.

U.S. District Courts

The U.S. District Courts are the main trial courts in the federal judicial system. Each state (and Washington, D.C.) has at least one federal district, and some states are divided into multiple districts. When this division occurs, districts are defined geographically, such as the Northern, Southern, Eastern, and Western Districts of New York.

In addition, the federal judiciary maintains District Courts in the following four territories:

You can also explore decisions by the District Courts in the following official reporters:

A party who disagrees with a decision by a District Court can appeal to the appropriate Circuit Court.

Federal Bankruptcy Courts

The U.S. District Courts contain units called "bankruptcy courts," which review bankruptcy cases and related proceedings. If a party disagrees with a decision by a bankruptcy court, they can appeal to the District Court. In addition, some federal circuits have formed Bankruptcy Appellate Panels (BAPs), which consist of three bankruptcy judges appointed from that circuit's districts. These may hear appeals of decisions by bankruptcy courts if the parties agree and if the district where the bankruptcy court sits authorizes these appeals. Currently, BAPs exist in five circuits:

A U.S. Bankruptcy Appellate Panel for the Second Circuit also existed between 1996 and 2000.

Other Federal Courts

The federal judicial system also includes certain specialized courts dedicated to claims or appeals involving specific topics.

  • U.S. Court of Federal Claims - This court serves as a trial court for most monetary claims against the federal government. It was formerly known as the U.S. Claims Court.
  • U.S. Tax Court - This court hears challenges to decisions of tax deficiencies by the Internal Revenue Service. It was originally established as the U.S. Board of Tax Appeals.
  • U.S. Court of International Trade - This court reviews cases arising from federal laws involving customs and international trade. It was formerly known as the U.S. Customs Court.
  • U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces - This court reviews appeals from the four Courts of Criminal Appeals in the armed forces: the Army, the Navy-Marine Corps, the Air Force, and the Coast Guard Courts of Criminal Appeals. It was formerly known as the U.S. Court of Military Appeals.
  • U.S. Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims - This court reviews determinations of veterans' disability claims by the Board of Veterans' Appeals in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). It was formerly known as the U.S. Court of Veterans Appeals.
  • U.S. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review - This court reviews appeals from the U.S. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, involving applications for warrants related to national security investigations.
  • U.S. Court of Claims (1855-1982) - This court was the earliest judicial forum for monetary claims against the federal government.
  • U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals (1909-1982) - For most of its history, this court heard appeals from the U.S. Customs Court and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. It was originally known as the U.S. Court of Customs Appeals before it began hearing patent and trademark cases in 1929.
  • Emergency Court of Appeals (1942-1962) - This court reviewed challenges to government actions involving the Emergency Price Control Act of 1942, the Housing and Rent Acts of 1948, and the Defense Production Act of 1950.