SER Doe v. Troisi
Annotate this Case
January 1995 Term
___________
No. 22817
___________
STATE OF WEST VIRGINIA
EX REL. JOHN DOE, JANE DOE, AND
JANE ROE,
Relators
V.
HONORABLE JOSEPH G. TROISI, SPECIAL JUDGE
OF THE CIRCUIT COURT OF KANAWHA COUNTY,
AND MICHELE RUSEN, SPECIAL PROSECUTING
ATTORNEY FOR KANAWHA COUNTY,
Respondents
_______________________________________________________
PETITION FOR A WRIT OF PROHIBITION
Writ Denied
________________________________________________________
Submitted: May 2, 1995
Filed: May 18, 1995
Lonnie C. Simmons
DiTrapano & Jackson
Charleston, West Virginia
Attorney for the Relators
Michele Rusen
Special Prosecuting Attorney
for Kanawha County
Parkersburg, West Virginia
Attorney for the Respondents
JUSTICE CLECKLEY delivered the Opinion of the Court.
JUSTICE BROTHERTON did not participate.
RETIRED JUSTICE MILLER and JUDGE SPAULDING sitting by temporary
assignment.
SYLLABUS BY THE COURT
1. "'In determining whether to grant a rule to show
cause in prohibition when a court is not acting in excess of its
jurisdiction, this Court will look to the adequacy of other
available remedies such as appeal and to the over-all economy of
effort and money among litigants, lawyers and courts; however, this
Court will use prohibition in this discretionary way to correct
only substantial, clear-cut, legal errors plainly in contravention
of a clear statutory, constitutional, or common law mandate which
may be resolved independently of any disputed facts and only in
cases where there is a high probability that the trial will be
completely reversed if the error is not corrected in advance.'
Syllabus Point 1, Hinkle v. Black, 164 W. Va. 112, 262 S.E.2d 744
(1979)." Syllabus Point 12, Glover v. Narick, 184 W. Va. 381, 400 S.E.2d 816 (1990).
2. In situations where the refusal of a motion to quash
a subpoena based on the attorney-client privilege could result in
imminent and irreparable harm, petitioning for a writ of
prohibition is the appropriate method for challenging the subpoena.
3. As a general rule, the attorney-client privilege is
adequate protection of client confidences even in the context of a
grand jury proceeding. There is no need to quash a grand jury
subpoena simply because it is issued to an attorney of an
individual under investigation. Once properly invoked, the circuit court has discretion to decide on a question-by-question
basis whether the privilege was properly asserted during the grand
jury proceedings.
4. If it is apparent that a subpoena was issued for
improper reasons, a circuit court has the discretion and inherent
authority to require a prosecutor to make a preliminary showing of
relevance and inability to obtain the disputed material from
another source.
Cleckley, Justice:
In this original proceeding in prohibition, the relators
request that we broaden the attorney-client privilege by creating
a per se preliminary standard for grand jury proceedings that
requires prosecutors to show a compelling need for certain
information before a subpoena issued for the attorneys of
investigated clients may be enforced. We decline to create such a
far reaching standard out of fear that such an expansive rule would
impede the grand jury's investigative duties. We recognize that
because of the inherent conflict between the attorney-client
privilege and the grand jury, it is necessary to grant the circuit
court broad discretion to require a preliminary showing if there is
a suspicion that the subpoena power is being misused.
I.
FACTS
The issues asserted in this original proceeding arise
from a special grand jury proceeding before the respondent, the
Honorable Joseph G. Troisi. Judge Troisi was appointed as a
Special Judge for Kanawha County by an administrative order of this
Court dated June 30, 1994, following the voluntary disqualification
of all the Kanawha County Circuit Judges. The respondent, Michele
Rusen, was appointed as Special Prosecutor by Judge Troisi after
the Office of the Kanawha County Prosecuting Attorney disqualified
itself from the investigation or prosecution of Target Client and Target B.See footnote 1 A special grand jury is currently investigating alleged
criminal activities by Target Client and Target B. The relators in
this case are John Doe, an attorney currently representing Target
Client; Jane Doe, an investigator at John Doe's firm; and Jane Roe,
a former associate in John Doe's law firm.
After Target B was accused of sexually harassing certain
court employees and others, an investigation was conducted. The
matter was then referred to the Judicial Inquiry Board. Target B
ultimately admitted to some of these allegations prior to resigning
his position as a circuit judge.
Target B allegedly sexually harassed and abused Target
Client on August 5, 1992, in his chambers. Target Client executed
an affidavit detailing this harassment on August 31, 1992.
Following an unusual series of events, in April, 1994, Target
Client allegedly attempted to extort money from Target B in
exchange for her silence about the harassment. Target Client was
arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigations following the
extortion attempt and was represented by John Doe's law firm. The
federal warrant for Target Client's arrest was later dismissed.
Sometime following her arrest, Target Client, with the assistance
of John Doe's law office, released a copy of the aforementioned affidavit and a press release. The press release and the affidavit
were published in substantial part in the Charleston Daily Mail, a
newspaper of general circulation.
Following the February special grand jury proceedings and
further investigation, subpoenas were issued for John Doe, Jane
Doe, and Jane Roe. The subpoenas were returnable for the second
scheduled appearance of the grand jury on March 13, 1995. All the
relators filed motions to quash the subpoenas. Jane Roe's motion
to quash was heard in camera by Judge Troisi on March 13, 1995.
At the in camera hearing, Judge Troisi agreed with the
relator, Jane Roe, that the State must make a preliminary showing
of the "purpose of . . . [the] grand jury investigation" and the
relevance and need for the requested testimony. The special
prosecutor explained the purpose of the testimony was to elicit
information surrounding Target Client's affidavit. Judge Troisi,
satisfied with the special prosecutor's explanation, refused to
quash the subpoena for Jane Roe. However, Judge Troisi stated his
refusal to quash the subpoena in no way abrogated Jane Roe's right
to assert the attorney-client privilege, and he would evaluate the
assertion of this privilege on a question-by-question basis in an
in camera hearing at the conclusion of the questioning of this
witness. A similar hearing was held to consider John Doe's and
Jane Doe's motions to quash. As with Jane Roe, Judge Troisi
required the special prosecutor to make a preliminary showing and, once again, he found an adequate showing had been made to defeat
the motions to quash.
Thereafter, Jane Roe was called to testify before the
special grand jury. During her testimony, Jane Roe asserted the
attorney-client privilege a number of times. The court held an in
camera hearing to determine whether the privilege applied to the
questions raised. During the course of the hearing, John Doe and
Jane Doe were invited to participate in the in camera hearing. The
court directed that Jane Roe's testimony be transcribed, and then
scheduled another hearing for March 17, 1995, to consider the scope
of the waiver of the attorney-client privilege.
As this Court interceded and issued a rule to show cause
on or about March 14, 1995, the hearing scheduled for March 17,
1995, was not held. Jane Roe has testified, but has not been
required to answer any questions where she asserted the attorney-
client privilege. The special grand jury has taken no action that
would render these proceedings moot.
II.
DISCUSSION
A.
Writ of Prohibition
We must first consider whether a writ of prohibition is
an appropriate remedy for the parties in this case. As a recent practice, we have refused to exercise original jurisdiction to
issue a writ of prohibitionSee footnote 2 when disputes are purely factual or
where the issues raised are matters within the trial court's
discretion and jurisdiction. See State v. Lewis, 188 W. Va. 85,
422 S.E.2d 807 (1992). This limitation is no accident, but instead
flows from deliberate policy decisions from this Court and the
United States Supreme Court which have restricted the granting of
writs of prohibition to cases of an extraordinary nature. State ex
rel. Allen v. Bedell, ___ W. Va. ___, ___, 454 S.E.2d 77, 81-84
(1994) (Cleckley, J., concurring). See Ex parte Collet, 337 U.S. 55, 72, 69 S. Ct. 944, 953, 93 L. Ed. 1207, 1217 (1949), quoting Ex
parte Fahey, 332 U.S. 258, 259-60, 67 S. Ct. 1558, 1559, 91 L. Ed. 2041, 2043 (1947) ("'[m]andamus, prohibition and injunction against
judges are drastic and extraordinary remedies. . . . As
extraordinary remedies, they are reserved for really extraordinary
causes'"). In fact, in Syllabus Point 12 of Glover v. Narick, 184
W. Va. 381, 400 S.E.2d 816 (1990), we repeated our general standard
in prohibition cases:
"'In determining whether to grant a
rule to show cause in prohibition when a court
is not acting in excess of its jurisdiction,
this Court will look to the adequacy of other
available remedies such as appeal and to the
over-all economy of effort and money among
litigants, lawyers and courts; however, this Court will use prohibition in this
discretionary way to correct only substantial,
clear-cut, legal errors plainly in
contravention of a clear statutory,
constitutional, or common law mandate which
may be resolved independently of any disputed
facts and only in cases where there is a high
probability that the trial will be completely
reversed if the error is not corrected in
advance.' Syllabus Point 1, Hinkle v. Black,
164 W. Va. 112, 262 S.E.2d 744 (1979)."
See also State ex rel. Elish v. Wilson, 189 W. Va. 739, 434 S.E.2d 411 (1993); State ex rel. Parkland Development, Inc. v. Henning,
189 W. Va. 186, 429 S.E.2d 73 (1993); Ash v. Twyman, 174 W. Va.
177, 324 S.E.2d 138 (1984).
The relators do not question the jurisdiction of the
lower court, but are seeking prohibition on the ground that the
special prosecutorSee footnote 3 and the special judgeSee footnote 4 have exceeded their legitimate powers by issuing the subpoenas and by refusing to quash
the subpoenas, respectively.See footnote 5 When jurisdiction is not at issue,
then the issuance of a writ is discretionary. Woodall v. Laurita,
156 W. Va. 707, 195 S.E.2d 717 (1973). Thus, the exercise of our
original jurisdiction is discretionary and is governed by the
practical circumstances of the case. Before we exercise this
discretionary power, we must apply the aforementioned standards and
ascertain whether there is a clear-cut error that needs resolution
where alternate remedies are inadequate and judicial economy
demands resolution. See Wood County Court v. Boreman, 34 W. Va.
362, 12 S.E. 490 (1890) (writ of prohibition should lie only when
extraordinary circumstances elude normally available remedies);
accord State ex rel. Gordon Memorial Hosp. v. W. Va. State Bd. of
Examiners, 136 W. Va. 88, 66 S.E.2d 1 (1951).
We recognize that an order denying a motion to quash a
subpoena is interlocutory in character and, thus, usually is not
reviewable in an original proceeding. More specifically,
challenging a circuit court's refusal to quash a subpoena because
of an asserted testimonial privilege is not reviewable until after
the witness refuses to testify or disclose relevant documents and
is cited for contempt. See 1 Scott N. Stone & Robert K. Taylor,
Testimonial Privileges § 1.59 (1994). However, in prior cases, we
have entertained an original proceeding in connection with an
interlocutory order when the order raised a substantial issue
relating to the administration of criminal justice or placed a
litigant at an unwarranted disadvantage in a pending action.See footnote 6
Additionally, an increasing number of courts now permit clients to
intervene and challenge the subpoena of an attorney or other
custodian of documents were a privilege may be asserted. Braswell
v. United States, 487 U.S. 99, 108 S. Ct. 2284, 101 L. Ed. 2d 98
(1988); Fisher v. United States, 425 U.S. 391, 96 S. Ct. 1569, 48 L. Ed. 2d 39 (1976). Jurisdictions have been reluctant to review the
refusal to quash a subpoena because it is frequently unclear what
relevance the privileged information will actually have in the underlying case. Constant tampering with the discretionary
function of a lower tribunal could result in unjustifiably
impinging discretionary power. Brecht v. Abrahamson, ___ U.S. ___,
___, 113 S. Ct. 1710, 1720-21, 123 L. Ed. 2d 353, 371 (1993), quoting
Engle v. Isaac, 456 U.S. 107, 127, 102 S. Ct. 1558, 1571, 71 L. Ed. 2d 783, 800 (1982) ("'[l]iberal allowance'" of extraordinary
writs "'degrades the prominence of the trial'").
The exercise of original jurisdiction is appropriate
under the circumstances of this case. The order denying the motion
to quash not only poses a question of significant importance to the
administration of justice in West Virginia, but also places the
relators, as counsel and investigator of Target Client, in an
ethical quandary as to the continued representation of Target
Client in future prosecutions. We, indeed, are mindful of the
competing interests involved and are compelled to consider the
parties' contentions because of the possible infringement on the
attorney-client privilege.See footnote 7
Finally, we note the judiciary has general supervisory
authority to ensure fairness in grand jury proceedings. Central to
our analysis are those ethical considerations that necessarily
arise when an attorney of record is subpoenaed by the prosecutor in
order to give testimony that could be adverse to the subpoenaed
attorney's client who is a target of the grand jury. Moreover, the
denial of a motion to quash the subpoena could result in the
disqualification of the subpoenaed attorney from future
representation of the client. Such a practice, if not carefully
monitored by the judiciary, could be converted into a device for
forcing the disqualification of particular lawyers from
representing certain clients.
Out of consideration for the aforementioned points, we
find that in situations where the refusal of a motion to quash a
subpoena based on the attorney-client privilege could result in
imminent and irreparable harm, petitioning for a writ of
prohibition is the appropriate method for challenging the subpoena.
B.
The Grand Jury and the Attorney-Client Privilege
There are two broad and competing interests at risk in
this case--the power of the grand jury and the attorney-client
privilege. Historically, this Court has jealously guarded the
parameters of both the grand jury and the privilege and, in many of
our cases we have attempted to shore the boundaries. However, we
have never specifically developed what standards, if any, are
required when these two competing interests directly conflict. The
facts of this case compel us to address such issues. Thus, we must
determine whether the attorney-client privilege is itself an
adequate protection for client confidences in grand jury
proceedings or whether special preliminary standards must be
satisfied prior to subpoenaing an attorney of a putative defendant.
We begin our analysis with a discussion of the general
power and authority of the grand jury and the justifications at the
heart of the attorney-client privilege. The grand jury was
originally created to carry out a vital and unique function in our
criminal justice system. It is charged with the duty to
investigate the possibility of criminal behavior while "protecting
the innocent from unjust accusation." I Franklin D. Cleckley,
Handbook on West Virginia Criminal Procedure at I-617 (1993). See
also State ex rel. Miller v. Smith, 168 W. Va. 745, 751, 285 S.E.2d 500, 504 (1981) (the dual function of the grand jury is to "operate
both as a sword, investigating cases to bring to trial persons accused on just grounds, and as a shield, protecting citizens
against unfounded malicious or frivolous prosecutions"). In order
to carry out its truth-seeking function, the grand jury is
necessarily vested with broad investigatory powers. Significantly,
a grand jury is not required to wait for a case or controversy
before acting; it can in fact "'investigate merely on suspicion
that the law is being violated, or even just because it wants
assurance that it is not.'" United States v. R. Enterprises, Inc.,
498 U.S. 292, 297, 111 S. Ct. 722, 726, 112 L. Ed. 2d 795, 805
(1991), quoting United States v. Morton Salt Co., 338 U.S. 632,
642-43, 70 S. Ct. 357, 364, 94 L. Ed. 401, 411 (1950). A grand
jury's quest for information ends once an offense is identified or
a determination made that no crime was committed.
Pursuant to the mandates of the West Virginia
Constitution, we have a "sworn duty to support the fundamental
principles upon which our legal institutions are founded." State
ex rel. Miller v. Smith, 168 W. Va. at 752, 285 S.E.2d at 504.
Indeed, this Court has striven to maintain the integrity of the
grand jury by following historical models of grand jury functions
in the hopes that our grand jury system does not deteriorate into
the functional equivalent of a rubber stamp for a prosecutor.
State ex rel. Miller v. Smith, supra (as a result of the increased
use of testimonial privileges, grand juries have lost their
independence and become dominated by prosecutors).
A grand jury's powers are so vast that many of the usual
trial court procedures are suspended for grand jury proceedings.
See State ex rel. Casey v. Wood, 156 W. Va. 329, 193 S.E.2d 143
(1972). See also United States v. R. Enterprises, Inc., supra
(noting that among other trial court standards, the exclusionary
rule does not apply in grand jury proceedings). For example, a
putative defendant in a grand jury proceeding does not have the
right to have counsel present, unlike a defendant's constitutional
right to counsel after indictment. State v. Miller, 175 W. Va.
616, 336 S.E.2d 910 (1985). Additionally, witnesses may be
compelled to testify before a grand jury. Although various
evidentiary restrictions applied during adversarial proceedings
might "increase the likelihood of accurate determinations of guilt
or innocence[,] . . . [when applied to grand jury determinations,
these restrictions] . . . 'would result in interminable delay but
add nothing to the assurance of a fair trial.'" United States v.
R. Enterprises, Inc., 498 U.S. at 298, 111 S. Ct. at 726, 112 L. Ed. 2d at 805, quoting Costello v. United States, 350 U.S. 359,
364, 76 S. Ct. 406, 409, 100 L. Ed. 397, 403 (1956).
However, a grand jury's powers are not limitless and a
circuit court not only has the power, but has an obligation to curb
a grand jury's overreaching. State ex rel. Casey v. Wood, 156 W.
Va. at 333, 193 S.E.2d at 145 (although there is usually no limit
on the "character of the evidence that may be presented to a grand
jury," the circuit court has the discretion to control the process and to rule on motions). See also Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665, 92 S. Ct. 2646, 33 L. Ed. 2d 626 (1972). See also In re Grand
Jury Subpoena (Legal Services Center), 615 F. Supp. 958, 962 (D.C.
Mass. 1985) ("'[t]he grand jury's right to every man's evidence is
substantially limited only by express "constitutional, common-law
or statutory [privileges and is also] subject to judges'
supervisory powers"'" (citations omitted)). A circuit court's
inherent powers also extend to its authority to stop prosecutorial
abuse. As we noted in Casey:
"The grand jury is an arm or agency of the
court by which it is convened and such court
has control and supervision over the grand
jury. United States v. Smyth, D.C., 104 F. Supp. 283 [(N.D. Cal., S.D. 1952)]. A
grand jury has no independent existence, but
is a part of and adjunct to the court. State
ex rel. Martin v. Michell, Fla.App., 188 So. 2d 684 [(1966)]." 156 W. Va. at 333, 193 S.E.2d
at 145.
As with other powers of the grand jury, the subpoena
power is broad. Indeed, a grand jury's subpoena duces tecum
carries with it a presumption of validity. See In re Grand Jury
Subpoena, 920 F.2d 235 (4th Cir. 1990). However, "[i]t should also
be noted that a grand jury has no power to compel a witness to
testify, but only the court can exercise such compulsion." State
ex rel. Casey v. Wood, 156 W. Va. at 333-34, 193 S.E.2d at 145.
A grand jury's investigatory tasks must be balanced with
other interests, including testimonial privileges like the
attorney-client privilege. The policy considerations underpinning the attorney-client privilege directly conflict with the interests
of the grand jury's truth-seeking function considering the main
purpose behind the privilege is to provide protection for client
confidences. The relators ask us to decide whether the attorney-
client privilege must give way to the interests of the grand jury.
We are specifically asked to establish standards that must be
satisfied before an attorney of a putative defendant is required to
submit to a grand jury subpoena.
The attorney-client privilege was the first testimonial
privilege ever established. The original rationale for the
privilege, which was based on the "oath and honor of the attorney,"
permitted attorneys to control the privilege and hold client
confidences to preserve the attorney's honor. I Franklin D.
Cleckley, Handbook on West Virginia Evidence § 5-4(E)(1) at 560
(1994). See also 8 Wigmore, Wigmore on Evidence § 2290 at 542-43
(1961) (noting the history of the privilege and stating the
privilege has been largely unquestioned dating from the reign of
Elizabeth I).See footnote 8 The rationale behind the attorney-client privilege
changed from an attorney-owned-honor-based privilege during the
Eighteenth Century to the present instrumental rationale that now
focuses on an attorney's need to be fully aware of the facts of a client's case in order to provide effective assistance. See Marano
v. Holland, 179 W. Va. 156, 366 S.E.2d 117 (1988); Matter of Grand
Jury Subpoena of Stewart, 144 Misc. 2d 1012, 545 N.Y.S.2d 974
(1989), modified by 156 A.D.2d 294, 548 N.Y.S.2d 679 (1989). This
privilege is now under the exclusive control of the client rather
than the attorney. Thus, the client has the privilege to refuse to
disclose and to prevent others from disclosing the information
conveyed. State v. Douglass, 20 W. Va. 770 (1882).
The present rationale for the privilege has been
succinctly stated as being the desire to "'[p]romote freedom of
consultation of legal advisers by clients, the apprehension of
compelled disclosure by the legal advisers must be removed; hence
the law must prohibit such disclosure except on the client's
consent.'" 1 Scott N. Stone and Robert K. Taylor, Testimonial
Privileges § 1.01 at 1-4 (1994), quoting 8 Wigmore, Evidence § 2291
at 545 (1961).See footnote 9
The attorney-client privilege is a common law privilege
that protects communications between a client and an attorney during consultations. See W.Va.R.Evid. 501See footnote 10; State v. Fisher, 126
W. Va. 117, 27 S.E.2d 581 (1943). This privilege protects the
substance of communicationsSee footnote 11; therefore, the privilege extends to
protect communication between the attorney and the agents,
superiors, or attorneys in joint representation. United States v.
(Under Seal), 748 F.2d 871 (4th Cir. 1984), vacated 757 F.2d 600
(1985). See also Syl. pt. 3, Marano v. Holland, supra (the
attorney-client privilege extends to others who are advised of
confidential information at the direction of the attorney); United
States v. McPartlin, 595 F.2d 1321 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 833, 100 S. Ct. 65, 62 L. Ed. 2d 43 (1979) (specifically noting
the privilege applies to investigators).See footnote 12
The scope of the attorney-client privilege is broad, but
we have never held it to be unlimited. As stated previously, a subpoena duces tecum is presumed to be valid. Although a grand
jury is not allowed to inquire into privileged information, the
burden is on the party resisting the subpoena to show either that
the subpoena is flawed or that there is some kind of privilege
barring disclosure. See In re Grand Jury Subpoena (Legal Services
Center), supra. Even in the cases where privilege is involved, the
majority of courts require the privilege be asserted on a question-
by-question basis instead of allowing the privilege to be used as
a broad protection against being compelled to testify at all.See footnote 13
Traditionally, no witnesses, including attorneys, have enjoyed any
special protection from grand jury subpoenas. See In re Grand Jury
Matters, 751 F.2d 13, 19 (1st Cir. 1984) ("there can be no absolute
rule that frees an attorney, merely because he is such, to refuse
to give unprivileged evidence to a grand jury"); United States v.
Mackey, 405 F. Supp. 854 (E.D.N.Y. 1975) (training of attorneys
makes an inadvertent breach unlikely). See also Syl. pt. 1, In re
Yoho, 171 W. Va. 625, 301 S.E.2d 581 (1983) ("[f]ear of harm to
one's safety cannot justify a refusal to testify before a grand
jury").
The relators argue that an expansion of the attorney-
client privilege is warranted when a putative defendant's counsel
is subpoenaed. The relators fear the unbridled use of the subpoena
power would not only severely damage the relationship between
counsel and the client, but would ultimately lead to counsel's
disqualification if the client is indicted. Essentially, we are
asked to expand the traditional scope of the attorney-client
privilege to make a per se rule that attorneys for clients under
investigation cannot be subpoenaed unless the prosecutor makes a
showing of compelling need and circumstances. As a general
observation, we believe such an expansion is unwarranted in most
cases. However, we recognize there are cases in which the
probability may exist that the subpoena power is being used for
improper purposes. Under such circumstances, the circuit court has
inherent authority to require a showing of relevance and necessity
(i.e., the inability to obtain the information from other sources)
as a prerequisite to permitting use of the subpoena power.
There is force to the relators' contentions, but, as
suggested above, we believe on balance the remedy requested is
excessive. The subpoena power does have the potential to destroy
confidence and manipulate the criminal justice system if used with
reckless abandon. The Colorado Supreme Court in Williams v.
District Court, El Paso County, 700 P.2d 549, 555 (Colo. 1985),
quoting In re Grand Jury Subpoena Served Upon John Doe, 759 F.2d 968, 975 (2nd Cir. 1985), judgment vacated by 781 F.2d 238 (1986), cert. denied sub nom., Roc v. United States, 475 U.S. 1108, 106 S. Ct. 1515, 89 L. Ed. 2d 914 (1986), acknowledged the inherent tension
between a grand jury's quest for knowledge and a client's right to
certain confidences:
"'In carefully weighing these
important interests [the public interest in
presenting all relevant information to the
grand jury and the interest in preserving the
attorney-client relationship under our
adversary system of justice], two points
support additional protection for the
attorney-client relationship. First, the
unbridled use of the subpoena would
potentially allow the Government, in this and
future cases, to decide unilaterally that an
attorney will not represent his client. Such
power of disqualification can undermine and
debilitate our legal system by subjecting the
criminal defense bar to the subservience of a
governmental agent. The unrestricted exercise
of this power without adequate justification
does not strike us as necessary or
indispensable in an adversary system of
criminal justice, particularly when we
consider the significance of the attorney-
client relationship and the need for an
independent bar. Second, as noted earlier,
the right to have counsel of one's choosing in
the defense of a criminal charge is of
constitutional dimensions. Thus, any
potential infringement of this right must only
be as a last resort.'"
See also In re Grand Jury Investigation (Sturgis), 412 F. Supp. 943, 945-46 (E.D. Pa. 1976).
Compelling counsel to testify could undermine a target
client's trust, but creating the broad prophylactic rule desired by
the relators goes far beyond what is necessary to protect that
sacred trust. "Where the attorney is the sole source of
information . . . a rule severely restricting grand jury access to that attorney's testimony may in turn severely cripple any
attempted investigation." Michael F. Orman, A Critical Appraisal
of the Justice Department Guidelines for Grand Jury Subpoenas
Issued to Defense Attorneys, 1986 Duke L.J. 145, 150. Giving
defense attorney's "status" protection would completely eradicate
any balancing of competing interests that is presently reflected in
the application of the privilege. Under the relators' theory,
information could be revealed only if there is a compelling need.
Indeed, it would be difficult for prosecutors ever to satisfy the
compelling need test if all the information is controlled by
opposing counsel. As several courts have recognized, a broad
privilege could create incentive to use attorneys as "conduits of
information or of commodities necessary to criminal schemes." In
re Shargel, 742 F.2d 61, 64 (2nd Cir. 1984).
One of the relators' main arguments in support of the
preliminary standards is that an attorney might ultimately be
disqualified if he or she is compelled to testify, thus, violating
the putative defendant's Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Not
only is this a speculative assumption, there is no absolute right
to counsel of choice. See Wheat v. United States, 486 U.S. 153,
108 S. Ct. 1692, 100 L. Ed. 2d 140 (1988) (where defendant waived any
conflict of interest that might exist by using same attorney as
codefendant, Supreme Court found district court has discretion to
refuse waiver of conflicts of interest). Additionally, there is no
Sixth Amendment right to counsel at the grand jury stage. The right to counsel under the Sixth Amendment "attaches only at or
after the time that adversary judicial proceedings have been
initiated[.]" Kirby v. Illinois, 406 U.S. 682, 688, 92 S. Ct.
1877, 1881, 32 L. Ed. 2d 411, 417 (1972).
Recognizing the inherent conflict between grand jury
proceedings and the attorney-client privilege does not require us
to create new broad standards regulating the subpoena power. The
traditional balancing approach of weighing the quest for the truth
against the attorney-client privilege adequately protects the
client's interests without completely impeding the grand jury's
investigation in most cases. In case of an abuse of subpoena
power, a circuit court has the inherent authority to take action,
as was done here, to prevent the grand jury or the prosecutor from
using a subpoena to defeat the ends of justice. To be specific, a
circuit court has an arsenal of remedies at its disposal to control
its courtroom, including requiring a preliminary showing when there
is a suspicion of abuse.
The blanket assertion of the attorney-client privilege is
highly disfavored in the majority of jurisdictions. See Matter
of Grand Jury Subpoenas, 241 N.J. Super. 18, 574 A.2d 449 (1989)
(noting that blanket motions are inadvisable)See footnote 14; In re Grand Jury Proceedings 88-9 (MIA), 899 F.2d 1039 (11th Cir. 1990). In United
States v. Perry, 857 F.2d 1346, 1350 (9th Cir. 1988), aff'd by 940 F.2d 670 (9th Cir. 1991), quoting In re Grand Jury Matters, 751 F.2d at 19, the Ninth Circuit refused to create blanket protection
because there is no absolute right to counsel and the "'grand
jury's right to unprivileged evidence may outweigh the right of the
defense bar and its clients not to be disturbed.'" Finding various
United States Supreme Court cases persuasive, the Third Circuit
held it was unwise to place substantial restraints on the grand
jury. Baylson v. Disciplinary Bd. of Supreme Court of Pa., 975 F.2d 102 (3rd Cir. 1992). The Baylson court felt that many of the
restrictions--including preliminary showings--that were valid for
adversary proceedings should not extend to the grand jury context.
See also In re Grand Jury Subpoena (Battle), 748 F.2d 327 (6th Cir.
1984); In re Hergenroeder, 555 F.2d 686 (9th Cir. 1977); In re
Special Sept. 1983 Grand Jury (Klein), 608 F. Supp. 538 (S.D. Ind),
aff'd sub nom. Matter of Klein, 776 F.2d 628 (7th Cir. 1985).
While we agree with the tone of the majority of courts, we refuse
to adopt fully their stance on the attorney-client privilege
because there may be exceptional circumstances where a preliminary
showing might be necessary to curb injustice.
The few supporters of a preliminary showing requirement
stress the need for an independent defense bar and the fear of
Sixth Amendment violations to justify the imposition of a
preliminary standard. In In re Special Grand Jury No. 81-1 (Harvey), 676 F.2d 1005, 1010 (4th Cir.), vacated on other grounds,
697 F.2d 112 (4th Cir. 1982), the Fourth Circuit stated:
"We recognize that normally a subpoena is
presumed to be regular, and that the
subpoenaed party has the burden of showing
that the information sought is privileged or
that there has been an abuse of the grand jury
process. . . . Where the attorney for the
target of an investigation is subpoenaed
however attorney-client privilege
considerations and Sixth Amendment interests
arise automatically and a preliminary showing
must be made by the government before the
attorney can be forced to appear before the
grand jury." (Citation omitted).
See also United States v. Klublock, 639 F. Supp. 117 (D. Mass.
1986) (upholding rule making it unprofessional conduct for a
prosecutor to issue subpoena for defense counsel without prior
court approval), aff'd 832 F.2d 649 (1st Cir.), aff'd en banc by an
equally divided court, 832 F.2d 664 (1st Cir. 1987); In re Grand
Jury Subpoena (Legal Service Center), supra; Matter of Grand Jury
Investigation, 407 Mass. 916, 917-18, 556 N.E.2d 363, 364-65 (1990)
(reiterating previous standard that it "'[i]s unprofessional
conduct for a prosecutor to subpoena an attorney to a grand jury
without prior judicial approval in circumstances where the
prosecutor seeks to compel the attorney/witness to provide evidence
concerning a person who is represented by the attorney/witness.'"
(Citations and footnotes omitted)).
We find the minority standard of requiring a preliminary
showing each time a defense attorney is subpoenaed is neither
necessary nor desirable. Therefore, we reject the extremes of both the minority and majority views and adopt a more centralist view.See footnote 15
We hold that, as a general rule, the attorney-client privilege is
adequate protection of client confidences even in the context of a
grand jury proceeding. We further hold there is no need to quash
a grand jury subpoena simply because it is issued to an attorney of
an individual under investigation. Once properly invoked, the
circuit court has discretion to decide on a question-by-question
basis whether the privilege was properly asserted during the grand
jury proceedings. If it is apparent that a subpoena was issued for
improper reasons, a circuit court has the discretion and inherent
authority to require a prosecutor to make a preliminary showing of
relevance and inability to obtain the disputed material from
another source.
Ever mindful of the competing interests at stake in this
case, we feel that allowing a circuit court to determine on a case-
by-case basis when to apply preliminary standards appropriately
vests power on the spot in a circuit judge and adds another
adequate check on prosecutorial misconduct. Vesting such control
in the circuit court permits the attorney-client privilege and the
grand jury to function as intended, while providing extra
protection only in those situations that require special attention.
After determining that a preliminary showing may be
required under certain circumstances, we must now turn to the
question of what the appropriate standards are for a circuit court
to apply once it determines there is a need for the preliminary
showing. The relators assert that we should require the
prosecution to make a showing of compelling need. However, we
reject this standard because it confers almost absolute status
protection for attorneys of investigated clients once a circuit
court determines that a preliminary showing is appropriate. As
suggested above, we refuse to create such an overinclusive and
unnecessary standard. We believe the attorney-client privilege
protects the interests of the client in most cases without
completely restricting the grand jury's investigation.See footnote 16
Rather, the better standard is to require the prosecution
to make a showing of relevance and of the inability reasonably to obtain the requested information from any other source. This
standard forces the prosecution to come forward with information
that is relevant to the proceedings and to demonstrate that the
information is otherwise unobtainable. Requiring the requested
information to be unobtainable is key to the preliminary showing
requirement and is intended to require a prosecutor to be selective
regarding issuing subpoenas in doubtful cases. Once a prosecutor
shows the requested information is exclusively within the control
of defense counsel and is relevant to the proceedings, the grand
jury's investigative needs override concerns about weakening the
attorney-client relationship as a result of disclosure. Adopting
this somewhat milder standard than the one requested by the
relators gives the circuit court the opportunity to ferret out
prosecutorial misconduct without forcing the prosecution to perform
an almost impossible task.
In this case, Judge Troisi required the prosecution to
make a preliminary showing of the purpose of the investigation and
the relevance of and need for the information.See footnote 17 Judge Troisi required this showing out of concern for the constitutional rights
implicated by the issuing of a subpoena to the attorney of an
investigated client. We find Judge Troisi applied the correct
standard and did not abuse his discretion.See footnote 18
III.
CONCLUSION
In this case, the relators' request for blanket
protection of the attorney-client relationship is unnecessary and
the specific facts of this case do not necessitate the issuance of
the writ of prohibition.
Writ denied.
Footnote: 1
In compliance with the secrecy requirements for grand jury
proceedings under Rule 6 of the West Virginia Rules of Criminal
Procedure, we use pseudonyms for the targets of the investigation
and the attorneys and the investigator who are the relators in
this case.Footnote: 2
This Court's original jurisdiction in matters involving a
writ of prohibition stems from Section 3 of Article VIII, which
reads in pertinent part: "The supreme court of appeals shall
have original jurisdiction of proceedings in habeas corpus,
mandamus, prohibition, and certiorari." See also W. Va. Code,
53-1-1, et seq. (refining the judiciary's general grant of power
over the issuance of writs of prohibition).Footnote: 3
It is questionable whether a writ of prohibition is an
appropriate remedy for the special prosecutor's actions in this
case. In State ex rel. Miller v. Smith, 168 W. Va. 745, 756, 285 S.E.2d 500, 506 (1981), we stated that prohibition was only
appropriate for judicial officers and that prosecutors are
executive officers who are "not subject to the judicial writ of
prohibition" when performing their executive duties. See also
State ex rel. Hamstead v. Dostert, 173 W. Va. 133, 313 S.E.2d 409
(1984). Issuing a subpoena is part of a prosecutor's executive
function. Therefore, a writ of prohibition is generally
inappropriate unless a prosecutor is abusing the subpoena power.
However, prohibition will lie if a prosecutor exceeds his or her
jurisdiction and usurps the judicial power of the circuit court
or of the grand jury. Accord McGinley v. Hynes, 432 N.Y.S.2d 689, 412 N.E.2d 376 (1980) (finding the issuance of a writ of
prohibition is appropriate in extraordinary circumstances against
an inferior judicial tribunal or officer, but questioning whether
a writ of prohibition is ever appropriate when prosecutor is
carrying out purely investigatory function as opposed to quasi-
judicial or judicial behavior). We will assume for the purposes
of this opinion that the issuance of a writ of prohibition is
appropriate because neither party argues that the special
prosecutor is not subject to the writ. Footnote: 4
We also note that extraordinary writs such as prohibition
and sometimes mandamus "'have the unfortunate consequence of
making the . . . [trial] court a litigant.'" Kerr v. United
States District Court, 426 U.S. 394, 402, 96 S. Ct. 2119, 2123-
24, 48 L. Ed. 2d 725, 732 (1976). (Citation omitted). In the
future, both bar and bench should give serious consideration to a
rule where the trial judge would no longer be treated as a
respondent. Footnote: 5
Although the relators do have the right to raise the
attorney-client privilege on behalf of Target Client, Target
Client should have been made a party to this proceeding since the
attorney-client privilege belongs to Target Client. At oral
argument, the relators advised this Court that their client is
aware of these proceedings and has approved the action taken on
her behalf. Footnote: 6
See State ex rel. Register-Herald v. Canterbury, 192 W. Va.
18, 449 S.E.2d 272 (1994) (prohibition granted to reverse order
constituting prior restraint against newspaper); State ex rel.
Tyler v. MacQueen, 191 W.Va. 597, 447 S.E.2d 289 (1994)
(prohibition used to review disqualification of prosecutor's
office); State ex rel. Leach v. Schlaegel, 191 W. Va. 538, 447 S.E.2d 1 (1994) (prohibition granted to prevent relitigation of
case foreclosed because of collateral estoppel); State ex rel.
DeFrances v. Bedell, 191 W. Va. 513, 446 S.E.2d 906 (1994)
(prohibition used to review decision on lawyer's
disqualification).Footnote: 7
There is no right for a direct appeal for the interested
parties once the motions to quash the subpoenas are refused. Of
course, if the special grand jury indicts neither
Target Client nor Target B, there would be nothing to appeal.
However, applying the traditional standards, if either of the
targets is indicted, the party would be required to wait for a
conviction before raising the issue of testimonial privileges
during the grand jury setting. Infringing upon the attorney-
client privilege even at this preliminary stage of the
proceedings could result in irreparable harm. An attorney or an
attorney's agents testifying against a client during any
proceeding could result in disqualifiction of the attorney at the
trial stage and could cause a client to distrust his or her
attorney. Ultimately, this action could lead to clients'
refusing to disclose pertinent information to their attorneys out
of fear the attorneys may disclose the information later.Footnote: 8
But cf. 24 Charles Alan Wright & Kenneth W. Graham, Jr.,
Federal Practice and Procedure § 5472 at 71-72 (1986)
(criticizing Wigmore's historical account of the privilege by
claiming that Wigmore may have exaggerated the privilege's
ancestry out of fear the privilege would not survive modern
justifications without deeply rooted historical underpinnings).Footnote: 9
For cases suggesting that full disclosure is a critical
element to a successful attorney-client relationship, see Upjohn
Co. v. United States, 449 U.S. 383, 389, 101 S. Ct. 677, 682, 66 L. Ed. 2d 584, 591 (1981) (the purpose of the privilege "is to
encourage full and frank communication between attorneys and
their clients and thereby promote broader public interests in the
observance of law and administration of justice"); Fisher v.
United States, supra. But cf. Tornay v. United States, 840 F.2d 1424 (9th Cir. 1988) (certain disclosures like fee information
would neither harm the attorney-client relationship nor result in
less frank communication with clients).Footnote: 10
Rule 501 of the Rules of Evidence reads as follows: "The
privilege of a witness, person, government, state, or political
subdivision thereof shall be governed by the principles of the
common law except as modified by the Constitutions of the United
States or West Virginia, statute or court rule."Footnote: 11
Although the attorney-client privilege is a rather broad
doctrine, every kind of communication between a lawyer and a
client is not privileged. There are certain requirements that
must be satisfied before a communication is protected under this
privilege: First, an attorney-client relationship must exist at
the time of the communication; second, communication of some form
must take place; third, the advice requested from the attorney
must occur in the attorney's legal capacity; and, fourth, the
information confided must be intended to be confidential.
Furthermore, there must be no evidence that the client
intentionally waived the privilege. See I Franklin D. Cleckley,
Handbook on West Virginia Evidence § 5-4(E)(2) (1994).Footnote: 12
Therefore, the holding of this case will apply to the
investigator Jane Doe.Footnote: 13
See In re Grand Jury Subpoena, 831 F.2d 225 (11th Cir.
1987) (blanket assertion of attorney-client privilege is
inappropriate considering many of the documents subpoenaed may
not be protected by the privilege); LeBlanc v. Broyhill, 123 F.R.D. 527 (W.D.N.C. 1988) (an attorney must appear when
subpoenaed because the attorney may be privy to information that
is not available from another source). See also 1 Scott N. Stone
and Robert K. Taylor, Testimonial Privileges §§ 1.59-1.63 (1994).Footnote: 14
Although the New Jersey Superior Court was referring to
subpoenas ad testificandum instead of subpoenas duces tecum (that
are at issue in this case), its discussion about the problems
with asserting a blanket privilege is still instructive.Footnote: 15
We find support for this viewpoint in In re Grand Jury
Proceedings, 567 F.2d 281, 283 (5th Cir. 1978) ("[t]his court has
decided it will not impose such a [preliminary showing]
requirement without some showing of harassment or prosecutorial
misuse of the system). See also In re Grand Jury Investigation
(United States v. McLean), 565 F.2d 318 (5th Cir. 1977). Footnote: 16
Most of the cases cited by the relators to support their
argument for a compelling needs requirement are cases in which
various courts required a showing of compelling need in a trial
situation as opposed to a grand jury proceeding. Requiring a
showing of compelling need in adversary proceedings
is understandable considering there are greater interests at
stake. See United States v. R. Enterprises, Inc., supra (many of
the trial court standards, including those governing the issuance
of subpoenas, do not apply in the grand jury context). For
example, by the time of trial, a defendant's Sixth Amendment
rights have fully attached and the possibility of
disqualification of defense counsel if the defense counsel
testifies is no longer speculative. Furthermore, "[t]he serious
risk that such a practice poses to the integrity of the lawyer-
client relationship in the administration of criminal justice
leads us to conclude" that severe restrictions on the subpoena
power are justified. Williams v. District Court, El Paso County,
700 P.2d at 555.Footnote: 17
During the in camera hearing on Jane Roe's motion to
quash, the circuit court announced the prosecution would be
required to make the following preliminary showing:
"I do believe, however, that based
on the circumstances I have articulated that
the State is or should be required to make
some sort of preliminary showing to the Court
as to, one, the purpose of this grand jury
investigation; two, the relevance of the
expected testimony of this witness as to the
purpose of that investigation; and three, the
need of the government for the testimony of
this witness in order to develop that
relevant information[.]"Footnote: 18
Although we leave the ultimate decision about the
existence of misconduct to the circuit court, we wish to make it
clear the circuit court has the authority to inquire into any
ulterior motives of the prosecuting attorney for issuing these
subpoenas. Additionally, because of an incomplete record, we
will not address the issue of whether any of the relators can
assert the attorney-client privilege to the questions asked. Two
of the relators have not testified and, therefore, have not had
the opportunity to assert the privilege.
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