Lane et al v. American Airlines, Inc., No. 1:2018cv06110 - Document 70 (E.D.N.Y. 2022)

Court Description: MEMORANDUM AND ORDER granting in part and denying in part 60 Plaintiffs' Motion for Partial Summary Judgment. For the reasons discussed in the attached Memorandum and Order, the Court grants Plaintiffs' motion in part and denies it in part. Ordered by Chief Judge Margo K. Brodie on 4/8/2022. (Collins, Natalie)

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Lane et al v. American Airlines, Inc. Doc. 70 U NI T E D S T A T E S DI S T RI C T C O U R T E A S T E R N DI S T RI C T O F N E W Y O R K --------------------------------------------------------------A U B R E Y L A N E a n d J E S S E L A N E, Pl ai ntif fs, M E M O R A N D U M &O R D E R 1 8- C V - 6 1 1 0 ( M K B) v. A M E RI C A N AI R LI N E S , I N C., D ef e n d a nt. --------------------------------------------------------------M A R G O K. B R O DI E, U nit e d St at es Distri ct J u d g e: Pl ai ntiffs A u br e y a n d J es s e L a n e c o m m e n c e d t his a cti o n a g ai nst D ef e n d a nt A m eri c a n Airli n es, I n c. o n O ct o b er 3 1, 2 0 1 8, ( C o m pl., D o c k et E ntr y N o. 1), a n d fil e d t h eir S e c o n d A me n de d C o m pl ai nt ( “S A C ”) o n D e c e m b er 7, 2 0 2 0, bri n gi n g n e gli g e n c e a n d l oss of c o ns orti u m cl ai ms. (S A C ¶ ¶ 2 8 – 4 2, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 4 5). Pl ai ntiffs all e g e t h at D ef e n d a nt’s n e gli g e n c e all o w e d a n i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g er t o s e x u all y ass a ult A u br e y L a n e a b o ar d o n e of D ef e n d a nt’s fli g hts. (I d.) O n O ct o b er 2 8, 2 0 2 1, Pl ai ntiffs m o v e d f or p arti al s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n: ( 1) t h eir cl ai m t h at D ef e n d a nt p er mitt e d t h e u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g of a p ers o n w h o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d; ( 2) D ef e n d a nt’s t hir d a n d fift h affir m ati v e d ef e ns es t h at t his a cti o n is pr e e m pt e d b y f e d er al l a w; ( 3) D ef e n d a nt’s f o urt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e t h at Pl ai ntiffs h a v e f ail e d t o j oi n n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e p arti es; ( 4) D ef e n d a nt’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e t h at Pl ai ntiffs c o ul d h a v e o bt ai n e d p ers o n al j uris di cti o n o v er a n a bs e nt t ortf e as or a n d t h at t h e a bs e nt p art y’s c ul p a bilit y m a y b e c o m p ut e d i nt o t h e a p p orti o n m e nt of t ot al c ul p a bilit y; ( 5) D ef e n d a nt’s si xt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e t h at Pl ai ntiffs’ cl ai ms ar e b arr e d b y w ai v er or est o p p el; ( 6) t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s s e v e nt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e t h at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et-off f or a m o u nts s u bj e ct t o s ettl e m e nt or p ai d or p a y a bl e b y c oll at er al s o ur c es; a n d ( 7) t h e Dockets.Justia.com e xist e n c e of a c o v e n a nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s t w e nt y-first affir m ati v e d ef e ns e t h at D ef e n d a nt is e nti tl e d t o a s et-off d u e t o a c o v e n a nt n ot t o s u e. ( Pls.’ M ot. f or S u m m. J. ( “ Pls.’ M ot. ”), D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0; Pls.’ M e m. i n S u p p. of Pls. ’ M ot. (“ Pls.’ M e m. ”), D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 1.) D ef e n d a nt o p p os es. ( D ef.’s O p p’ n t o Pls. ’ M ot. f or S u m m. J. ( “D ef. ’s O p p’ n ”), D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 1.) F or t h e r e as o ns s et f ort h b el o w, t h e C o urt ( 1) d e ni es Pl ai ntiff s’ m oti o n f or p arti al s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o its cl ai m t h at D ef e n d a nt p er mitt e d t h e u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g of a p ers o n w h o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d; ( 2) gr a nts Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o D ef e n d a nt’s t hir d, f o urt h, fift h, a n d si xt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns es; ( 3) gr a nts Pl ai ntiff s’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt or c o v e n a nt r ais e d i n D ef e n d a nt’s s e v e nt e e nt h or t w e nt y-first affir m ati v e d ef e ns es; a n d ( 4) gr a nts i n p art Pl ai ntiff s’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o D ef e n d a nt’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d efe ns e . T h e C o urt als o fi n ds t h at t h e l a w of Ari z o n a will a p pl y t o Pl ai ntiffs’ n e gli g e n c e cl ai m. I. B ac k gr o u n d O n M a y 4, 2 0 1 7, Pl ai ntiff A u br e y L a n e p ur c h as e d a n airli n e ti c k et f or F li g ht 3 0 6 9 fr o m D ur a n g o, C ol or a d o t o P h o e ni x, Ari z o n a, a n d fr o m t h er e t o N e w Y or k J o h n F. K e n n e d y I nt er n ati o n al Air p ort ( “J F K ”) o n Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( Pls.’ St mt. of U n dis p ut e d F a cts ( “ Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ”) ¶ ¶ 1 – 2, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0.) G at e a g e nts J essi c a T arr a n d As hl ei g h T e nif a m a n a g e d t h e Fl i g ht 1 2 8 0 b o ar di n g pr o c ess, a n d Br et Br a y, C ar ol H a n n a h, L aJ u a n P er ki ns, a n d D u v a n Pr a d o st aff e d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 as fli g ht att e n d a nts. ( I d. ¶ ¶ at 6 – 7.) O n J u n e 1 6, 2 0 1 7, at 1 1: 3 4 P M , A u br e y L a n e b o ar d e d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 a n d s at i n wi n d o w s e at 1 2 A. ( I d. at ¶ 1 0 .) T h e p ass e n g er i n aisl e s e at 1 2 C b o ar d e d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 at 1 1: 3 1 P M , a n d R e n e S a nti a g o b o ar d e d at 1 1: 4 2 P M a n d s at i n mi d dl e s e at 1 2 B. ( I d. at ¶ ¶ 9, 1 1.) 2 L a n e t estifi e d t h at s h e first n oti c e d S a nti a g o “[ w] h e n h e g ot o n t h e pl a n e a n d w as w al ki n g d o w n t h e aisl e. ” ( D e p. of A u br e y L a n e d at e d A u g. 3 1, 2 0 2 0 ( “ L a n e D e p. ”) 7 8: 4 – 7, a n n e x e d t o Pls.’ M ot. as E x. 2, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 3.) S h e n oti c e d t h at “ h e w as st u m bli n g. H e w as r u n ni n g i nt o c h airs, i nt o s e ats. Li k e s h o ul d eri n g s e ats. Li k e ki n d of b o u n ci n g off of — off of s e ats as h e w al k e d d o w n t h e aisl e. ” ( I d. at 7 8: 2 0 – 2 5.) L a n e t estifi e d t h at s h e “ k n e w s o m et hi n g w as wr o n g wit h ” S a nti a g o w h e n h e g ot o n t h e pl a n e, a n d t h at “[t] h e s e c o n d h e s at . . . n e xt t o m e, I k n e w h e w as dr u n k. ” (I d. at 8 0: 1 – 1 1.) S h e k n e w t his b e c a us e “[ h e] s m ell e d. ” ( I d. at 8 0: 1 2 – 1 3.) As s o o n as S a nti a g o s at d o w n, h e b e g a n hitti n g t h e c all b utt o n a n d s a yi n g h e w a nt e d a dri n k. ( I d. at 8 0: 1 5 – 2 4.) A fli g ht att e n d a nt t h e n “ c a m e a n d t ol d hi m t h at [t h e y h a d n ot] e v e n l eft y et ” a n d t ol d hi m t o “[s] it d o w n. ” (I d. at 8 2: 1 8 – 2 1.) L a n e s ai d t h at S a nti a g o s at d o w n, b ut w as “ still fi d g eti n g a n d still li k e w a nti n g t h at dri n k. ” ( I d. at 8 2: 2 2 – 8 3: 1 2.) W h e n as k e d h o w s he k n e w t h at S a nti a g o w a nt e d a dri n k, s h e c o ul d n ot r e m e m b er “if h e w as s a yi n g it ” or if s h e c o ul d t ell b y l o o ki n g at hi m. (I d. at 8 3: 1 3 – 2 5 .) T h e p ass e n g er i n s e at 1 2 C, ( Pl s.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 9; D ef.’s R ul e 5 6. 1 C o u nt er- St mt. ( “ D ef.’s 5 6. 1 ”) ¶ 9 , D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 2), t estifi e d t h at S a nti a g o w as “t h e l ast, if n ot o n e of t h e l ast, i n di vi d u als o n t h e pl a n e. ” ( D e p. d at e d F e b. 1 8, 2 0 2 1 ( “ 1 2 C D e p. ”) 2 2: 1 8 – 2 3, a n n e x e d t o Pls.’ M ot. as E x. 1, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 2.) S h e s ai d t h at h e “ w as h a vi n g tr o u bl e st a n di n g. H e w as h a vi n g tr o u bl e w al ki n g i n t h e aisl e, fi n di n g his s e at. H e lit er all y str a d dl e d [ h er] t o g et t o t h e s e at. T h er e w as n’t t his, o h, h e y, c a n y o u st a n d u p or a n yt hi n g. It di d n ot s e e m t o b e — h e di d n ot s e e m i n t h e ri g ht st at e of mi n d. ” (I d. at 3 0: 1 – 9.) S h e als o t estifi e d t h at a fli g ht att e n d a nt w as f oll o wi n g S a nti a g o “ b e c a us e . . . t o t h e b est of [ h er] r e c oll e cti o n, h e w as b ar el y g etti n g o n b o ar d b y t h e ti m e it w as ti m e t o l e a v e. S o a fli g ht att e n d ant w as alr e a d y s o m e w h at h el pi n g hi m fi n d his s e at b e c a us e h e str u g gl e d t o e v e n fi n d r o w 1 2. ” ( I d. at 3 1: 1 7 – 2 3.) T h e p ass e n g er s ai d t h at i n h er “ p ers o n al 3 o pi ni o n, ” b as e d o n S a nti a g o’s “ p h ysi c al a p p e ar a n c es a n d t h e a git ati o n t h at h e d e m o nstr at e d, ” S a nti a g o w as “ n ot fit t o fl y. ” (I d. at 3 0: 1 0 – 1 3.) S h e als o t estifi e d t h at S a nti a g o t ol d h er t h at h e w as a n er v o us fl y er. ( I d. at 3 0: 1 7 – 2 0.) W h e n as k e d if S a nti a g o’s d e m e a n or c o ul d h a v e b e e n c a us e d b y n er v o us n ess, t h e p ass e n g er r e pli e d: “ H e s m ell e d of al c o h ol a n d t ol d us t h at h e h a d b e e n dri n ki n g a l ot at — I d o n’t k n o w if t h at w as at t h e air p ort or w h at n ot, b ut b e c a us e h e w as n er v o us. S o I, t o t h e b est of m y r e c oll e cti o n, f e el t h at t h e b e h a vi ors t h at h e w as e x hi biti n g w as b e y o n d j ust b ei n g n er v o us. ” ( I d. at 3 0: 2 3 – 3 1: 5.) T h e p ass e n g er als o t estifi e d t h at “t h e a m o u nt of al c o h ol t h at [ S a nti a g o] c o nf ess e d t o dri n ki n g . . . t o [ h er] w o ul d n ot b e a m e n a bl e t o t h e n g etti n g o n a fli g ht. ” ( I d. at 3 8: 1 8 – 3 9: 1.) T h e p ass e n g er t estifi e d t h at s h e c a m e t o t his “r e ali z ati o n or d e cisi o n ” a b o ut S a nti a g o’s c o n diti o n “[ w]it hi n t h e mi n ut e h e s at d o w n or st u m bl e d d o w n. ” (I d. at 3 1: 6 – 9.) S h e s ai d t h at S a nti a g o att e m pt e d t o or d er a dri n k b ef or e t h e fli g ht e v e n t o o k off, b ut t h at “[ a] fli g ht att e n d a nt c a m e a n d t ol d hi m t h at h e c o ul d n ot or d er dri n ks w hil e t h e y w er e i n t a k e off. ” ( I d. at 2 9: 9 – 1 8.) S a nti a g o t h e n t o o k a p h o n e c all as t h e pl a n e w as dis e m b ar ki n g, e v e n t h o u g h “it w as . . . v er y m u c h n ot w h e n y o u’r e s u p p os e d t o b e o n y o ur p h o n e. ” ( I d. at 3 1: 2 4 – 3 3: 6.) J or g e A n di n o, a f or m er A m eri c a n Airli n es c a pt ai n, w as pr es e nt o n Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 as a p ass e n g er. ( D e p. of J or g e A n di n o d at e d D e c. 3, 2 0 2 0 ( “ A n di n o D e p. ”) 5: 1 1 – 2 4, a n n e x e d t o Pls.’ M ot. as E x. 3, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 4.) A n di n o t estifi e d t h at h e s a w S a nti a g o i n t h e b o ar di n g ar e a b ef or e h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e. ( I d. at 1 0: 7 – 2 2.) H e n oti c e d S a nti a g o b as e d o n his b e h a vi or a n d “ m a y b e, j ust f or l a c k of w or ds, ass essi n g s o m e b o d y. ” ( I d. at 1 1: 5 – 8.) A n di n o s ai d t h at “j ust fr o m e v al u ati n g ” S a nti a g o, “ h e j ust s e e m e d t o b e ki n d of i n a f esti v e m o o d. T h at w as it. A littl e bit — a littl e bit l o u d, b ut n ot, y o u k n o w. . . . J ust ki n d of st o o d o ut. ” ( I d. at 1 1: 2 4 – 1 2: 6.) W he n as k e d w h at h e m e a nt b y “f esti v e m o o d, ” A n di n o r e pli e d t h at “[i]t w as j ust his m a n n eris m i n — 4 a cti n g wit h ot h er p e o pl e ar o u n d hi m. T h at w as it. A littl e bit l o u d, m a y b e, s o m eti m es j ust a littl e bit o v er — o v er[-]fri e n dl y. ” ( I d. at 1 2: 1 0 – 1 5.) H e di d n ot r e c all S a nti a g o a cti n g “l o u d or o v erl y fri e n dl y ” t o w ar d t h e g at e a g e nt. ( I d. at 1 2: 1 6 – 1 8.) A n di n o di d n ot r e m e m b er w h et h er h e or S a nti a g o b o ar d e d first, b ut t estifi e d t h at h e pr o b a bl y b o ar d e d b ef or e S a nti a g o. ( I d. at 1 2: 2 2 – 1 3: 2.) H e s ai d t h at o n c e h e w as o n b o ar d t h e pl a n e h e h a d a n o p p ort u nit y t o w at c h S a nti a g o b o ar d. ( I d. at 1 3: 3 – 6.) A n di n o s ai d t h at S a nti a g o “j ust s e e m e d t o b e a littl e — a littl e bit o v erj o y e d, y o u k n o w, a littl e bit fri e n dli er, a littl e bit a b o v e a n d b e y o n d j ust a r e g ul ar p ass e n g er b o ar di n g a n air cr aft. ” ( I d. at 1 3: 7 – 1 5.) W h e n as k e d if t h er e w as a n yt hi n g u n us u al a b o ut t h e w a y S a nti a g o st o w e d his c arr y- o n b a gs, A n di n o r e pli e d: “ H e w as j ust . . . a littl e bit — o utsi d e of his li mits, m a y b e, j ust a littl e bit c ar el ess. ” ( I d. at 1 3: 2 1 – 1 4: 1.) W h e n as k e d if b y “ c ar el ess ” A n di n o m e a nt t h at S a nti a g o’s “ b al a n c e w as n’t g o o d,” (i d. at 1 4: 2 – 4), A n di n o r e pli e d t h at “ h e w as at t h e p oi nt t h at h e w as j ust ki n d of . . . a littl e bit off b al a n c e. ” ( I d. at 1 4: 6 – 8.) C o u ns el as k e d if S a nti a g o w as “st u m bli n g ” d uri n g t h e b o ar di n g pr o c ess. ( I d. at 1 4: 9 – 1 0.) A n di n o s ai d n o, r e pl yi n g : I c o uld n’t s e e hi m st u m bli n g. It w as a v er y cr o w d e d fli g ht, b ut I j ust n oti c e d his m a n n eris m, y o u k n o w, w h e n h e a ct u all y c a m e t o t h e — y o u k n o w, t h e b o ar di n g pr o c ess a n d t h e n, y o u k n o w, st ori n g his b a gs, b ut t o s a y st u m bli n g, I — t h at, I h o n estl y c o ul d n’t r e ally pi n p oi nt. B ut it w as j ust e v er yt hi n g els e, y o u k n o w, t hi n gs t h at h a p p e n e d, t hr o wi n g his b a gs i n t h e o v er h e a d. O n e of t h e m s e e m e d t o f all b a c k d o w n, a n d t h at w as all. (I d. at 1 4: 1 2 – 2 0.) C o u ns el as k e d if S a nti a g o “ ki n d of f u m bl[ e d] t o fi n d his s e at ” a n d A n di n o s ai d y es. (I d. at 1 4: 2 1- 2 4.) C o u ns el as k e d if t h e fli g ht att e n d a nts “ w o ul d . . . h a v e b e e n a bl e t o s e e [ S a nti a g o] o utsi d e of his li mits or f u m bli n g t o fi n d his s e at. ” (I d. at 1 4: 2 5 – 1 5: 4.) A n di n o r e pli e d t h at it w as a v er y f ull fli g ht. It w as a l at e fli g ht, a n d t h e y w er e a littl e bit d el a y e d i n b o ar di n g. N o, t h e y — t h e y c o ul d n’t h a v e r e all y k n o w n b e c a us e t h er e w as j ust s o m u c h t hi n gs g oi n g o n t h at t h e att e n d a nts’ 5 d uti es, y o u k n o w, n e e d. S o I . . . I t hi n k m a y b e if t h e g e ntl e m a n h a d c o m e i n f ull y i n e bri at e d, t h er e w as n o w a y t h e fli g ht att e n d a nts c o ul d h a v e h o n estl y, y o u k n o w, k n o w n t h at b e c a us e it w as j ust — t h e fli g ht w as v er y f ull. (I d. at 1 5: 6 – 1 4.) W h e n as k e d if h e b eli e v e d t h at S a nti a g o w as i n e bri at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e, A n di n o r e pli e d, “ O h, a bs ol ut el y. ” ( I d. at 1 5: 1 5 – 1 8.) H e s ai d t h at t his w as b as e d o n his b e h a vi or at t h e g at e, b ut t h e fli g ht att e n d a nts c o ul d h a v e n e v er k n o w n t h at. I m e a n, it’s — b o ar di n g a n air cr aft l at e at ni g ht, t h er e’s a l ot of t hi n gs t h at t a k e pl a c e. Y o u k n o w, p e o pl e ar e miss e at e d a n d s o m e b o d y w a nts t his a n d s o m e b o d y bri n gs a d o g, s o t h e p o or fli g ht att e n d a nts w er e v er y w ell d e e p i n t h e b o ar di n g pr o c ess. B ut his b e h a vi or i n t h e g at e, t h at c a u g ht m y att e nti o n. (I d. at 1 5: 2 3- 1 6: 5.) O n c e S a nti a g o f o u n d his s e at, A n di n o c o ul d “j ust h e ar hi m ki n d of a littl e bit l o u d a n d j ust o v erl y fri e n dl y. ” (I d. at 1 6: 1 9 – 2 3.) A n di n o s a w S a nti a g o as k f or dri n ks b ef or e t h e pl a n e t o o k off a n d b eli e v e d t h at h e w as s er v e d t h e dri n ks h e r e q u est e d. ( I d. at 1 7: 1 0 – 1 8.) J essi c a T arr w as o n e of t h e g at e a g e nts w h o b o ar d e d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 7; D ef.’s 5 6. 1 ¶ 7.) S h e t estifi e d t h at s h e di d n ot r e m e m b er t h e fli g ht. ( D e p. of J essi c a T arr d at e d S e pt . 1 0, 2 0 2 0 ( “ T arr D e p. ”) 5: 1 1 – 1 4 , a n n e x e d t o Pls.’ M ot. as E x. 5, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 6.) S h e di d n ot k n o w L a n e, S a nti a g o, or a n y of t h e fli g ht cr e w or c o c k pit cr e w o n Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( I d. at 7: 1 1- 8: 5.) N or di d s h e r e m e m b er a m a n of S a nti a g o’s d es cri pti o n. ( I d. at 8: 9 – 2 4.) S h e di d n ot r e c all w h o h er s u p er vis or w as i n J u n e of 2 0 1 7 a n d di d n ot r e m e m b er w h at ot h er g at e a g e nt s h e w as w or ki n g wit h t h at d a y. ( I d. at 1 0: 9 – 2 4.) T arr di d n ot t hi n k A m eri c a n Airli n es tr ai ns its g at e a g e nts “t o s c a n t h e b o ar di n g ar e a t o l o o k f or p ot e nti al i nt o xi c at e d p ers o ns. ” ( I d. at 1 5: 1 0 – 1 4 .) S h e “ w o ul d n e v er b o ar d a n i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g er k n o wi n gl y. ” ( I d. at 1 4: 1 0- 1 2.) As hl ei g h T e nif a w as t h e ot h er g at e a g e nt w h o m a n a g e d t h e b o ar di n g of Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 7; D ef.’s 5 6. 1 ¶ 7.) S h e t estifi e d t h at s h e di d n ot r e m e m b er t h e fli g ht a n d di d n ot r e m e m b er S a nti a g o. ( D e p. of As hl ei g h T e nif a d at e d D e c . 9, 2 0 2 0 ( “ T e nif a D e p. ”) 6: 4 – 7, 9: 2 2 – 1 0: 2, a n n e x e d t o Pl.’s M ot. as E x. 6, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 7.) 6 Br et Br a y w as o n e of t h e fli g ht att e n d a nts assi g n e d t o Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 8; D e f.’s 5 6. 1 ¶ 8.) H e t estifi e d t h at h e di d r e m e m b er t h e fli g ht, s p e cifi c all y a n alt er c ati o n wit h L a n e i n t h e aisl e of t h e pl a n e. ( D e p. of Br et Br a y d at e d D e c. 6, 2 0 2 0 ( “ Br a y D e p. ”) 1 9: 6 – 2 0, a n n e x e d t o Pl.’s M ot. as E x. 7, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 8.) H o w e v er, h e di d n ot o bs er v e t h e b o ar di n g pr o c ess o n Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( I d. at 2 0: 1 4 – 1 6.) H e di d n ot r e m e m b er n oti ci n g a n y dist ur b a n c es i n r o w 1 2 d uri n g his w al k-t hr o u g h of t h e c a bi n, n or di d h e r e m e m b er if ot h er p ass e n g ers c o m pl ai n e d a b o ut dist ur b a n c es fr o m r o w 1 2. ( I d. at 2 5: 1 9 – 2 5.) C ar ol H a n n a h w as a s e c o n d fli g ht att e n d a nt assi g n e d t o Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 8; D ef.’s 5 6. 1 ¶ 8.) S h e t estifi e d t h at s h e di d n ot r e m e m b er s e ei n g a n y o n e b o ar di n g Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 w h o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d, n or di d s h e r e m e m b er if a n y p ass e n g ers o n t h e fli g ht r e q u est e d al c o h ol b ef or e t a k e off. ( D e p. of C ar ol H a n n a h d at e d D e c. 1 8, 2 0 2 0 ( “ H a n n a h D e p. ”) 1 3: 5 – 1 1, a n n e x e d t o Pl.’s M ot. as E x. 8, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 9.) H a n n a h di d n ot r e m e m b er if s h e s a w L a n e a n d S a nti a g o b o ar d t h e pl a n e a n d di d n ot r e m e m b er s er vi n g dri n ks t o eit h er of t h e m. ( I d. at 1 8: 5 – 2 1.) S h e di d n ot r e c all a n y p ass e n g ers b ei n g es p e ci all y l o u d i n r o w 1 2 a n d di d n ot r e c all a p ass e n g er i n r o w 1 2 st a n di n g o ut of his s e at t o pl a c e his al c o h ol or d er. ( I d. at 2 0: 6 – 1 9.) L aJ u a n P er ki ns w as a t hir d fli g ht att e n d a nt assi g n e d t o Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 a n d t h e “l e a d fli g ht att e n d a nt ” o n t h e fli g ht. ( Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 8; D ef.’s 5 6. 1 ¶ 8; D e p. of L aJ u a n P er ki ns d at e d S e pt. 2 4, 2 0 2 0 ( “ P er ki ns D e p. ”) 1 2: 4 – 1 0, a n n e x e d t o Pl.’s M ot. as E x. 9, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 1 0.) H er d uti es i n cl u d e d gr e eti n g p ass e n g ers d uri n g b o ar di n g a n d pr e p ari n g pr e d e p art ur e dri n ks. ( I d. at 2 5: 1 7 – 2 3.) S h e t estifi e d t h at s h e di d n ot pr o vi d e a n y pr e d e p art ur e dri n ks t o r o w 1 2. ( I d. at 2 5: 2 4 – 2 6: 2.) P er ki ns di d n ot r e m e m b er t h e b e h a vi or of a n y of t h e p ass e n g ers i n r o w 1 2 d uri n g t h e b o ar di n g pr o c ess. (I d. at 2 6: 1 3 – 1 9.) I nst e a d, t h e first ti m e s h e r e m e m b er e d s e ei n g t h e m w as 7 w h e n s h e w e nt t o t h e m ai n c a bi n t o s p e a k wit h L a n e a n d pr o vi d e h er wit h a p ass e n g er i n- fli g ht dist ur b a n c e f or m. ( I d. at 2 6: 2 0 – 2 7: 7.) D u v a n Pr a d o w as t h e f o urt h fli g ht att e n d a nt assi g n e d t o Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. ( Pls.’ 5 6. 1 ¶ 8; D ef.’s 5 6. 1 ¶ 8.) H e t estifi e d t h at t h e p ass e n g ers i n r o w 1 2 b o ar d e d t o g et h er, “li k e o n e b e hi n d t h e ot h er, ” a n d t h at h e “s a w t h e m w al k i n t o g et h er. ” ( D e p. of D u v a n Pr a d o d at e d S e pt. 2 4, 2 0 2 0 ( “ Pr a d o D e p. ”) 2 8: 1 4 – 2 0, 8 9: 1 8 – 2 5, a n n e x e d t o Pl.’s M ot. as E x. 1 0, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 0- 1 1.) O n t h e d a y aft er t h e fli g ht, Pr a d o wr ot e a r e p ort r e g ar di n g t h e i n ci d e nt. ( Pr a d o R e p ort d at e d J u n e 1 7, 2 0 1 7, a n n e x e d t o D ef.’s O p p’ n as E x. C, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 8- 1.) T h e r e p ort st at e d t h at “[ d] uri n g t h e i nfli g ht s er vi c e e v er yt hi n g s e e m e d t o b e v er y n or m al b et w e e n ” L a n e a n d S a nti a g o. (I d.) P a ul a H v ast a , a n A m eri c a n Airli n es pil ot, w as als o pr es e nt o n Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 as a p ass e n g er. ( D e p. of P a ul a A n n e H v ast a d at e d S e pt. 1 0, 2 0 2 0 ( “ H v ast a D e p. ”), a n n e x e d t o D ef.’s O p p’ n as E x. E, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 1- 5 ; D ef.’s O p p’ n 4.) H v ast a di d n ot s e e L a n e or S a nti a g o b o ar d t h e pl a n e. ( I d. at 3 9: 4 – 7.) S h e t estifi e d t h at s h e s a w L a n e w al ki n g t o t h e r e ar of t h e pl a n e t wi c e, wit h a m a n f oll o wi n g h er. ( I d. at 4 0: 2 2 – 4 1: 2; 4 7: 5 – 1 3.) H v ast a d es cri b e d t h e m a n’s g ait as a “[ n] or m al w al ki n g g ait ” a n d s ai d t h at h e di d n ot a p p e ar t o b e “ dr u n k, dr u g g e d, d a z e d [ or] gl a z e d. ” ( I d. at 4 9: 1 9 – 2 4.) Fi n all y, t h e p ass e n g er i n s e at 1 1 B t estifi e d t h at h e di d n ot “r e m e m b er a l ot of c o m m oti o n ” or “ a n yt hi n g o ut of t h e or di n ar y ” d uri n g t h e fli g ht. ( S e e D ef.’s O p p’ n 4; D e p. d at e d D e c. 5, 2 0 2 0, 1 3: 8 – 1 5 ( “1 1 B D e p. ”), a n n e x e d t o D ef.’s O p p’ n as E x. F, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 1- 6.) Pl ai ntiffs all e g e t h at S a nti a g o w as visi bl y i nt o xi c at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e fli g ht, c o nti n u e d t o dri n k aft er b o ar di n g, a n d s e x u all y ass a ult e d A u br e y L a n e w hil e a b o ar d t h e pl a n e. ( S A C ¶ ¶ 1 2– 1 5.) 8 II. Dis c ussi o n a. St a n d a r d of r e vi e w S u m m ar y j u d g m e nt is pr o p er o nl y w h e n “t h er e is n o g e n ui n e dis p ut e as t o a n y m at eri al f a ct a n d t h e m o v a nt is e ntitl e d t o j u d g m e nt as a m att er of l a w. ” F e d. R. Ci v. P. 5 6( a); Wi n d w ar d B or a, L L C v. Wil mi n gt o n S a v. F u n d S o c’ y , 9 8 2 F. 3 d 1 3 9, 1 4 2 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 2 0); W a n d eri n g D a g o, I n c. v. D estit o, 8 7 9 F. 3 d 2 0, 3 0 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 8). T h e c o urt m ust “ c o nstr u[ e] t h e e vi d e n c e i n t h e li g ht m ost f a v or a bl e t o t h e n o n- m o vi n g p art y ” a n d “r es ol v e all a m bi g uiti es a n d dr a w all p er missi bl e f a ct u al i nf er e n c es i n f a v or of t h e p art y a g ai nst w h o m s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt is s o u g ht. ” L e nzi v. S yst e m a x, I n c. , 9 4 4 F. 3 d 9 7, 1 0 7 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 9) (first q u oti n g V K K C or p. v. N at’l F o ot b all L e a g u e , 2 4 4 F. 3 d 1 1 4, 1 1 8 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 1); a n d t h e n q u oti n g J o h ns o n v. G o or d , 4 4 5 F. 3 d 5 3 2, 5 3 4 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 6)). T h e r ol e of t h e c o urt “is n ot t o r es ol v e dis p ut e d q u esti o ns of f a ct b ut o nl y t o d et er mi n e w h et h er, as t o a n y m at eri al iss u e, a g e n ui n e f a ct u al dis p ut e e xists. ” R o g oz v. Cit y of H artf or d , 7 9 6 F. 3 d 2 3 6, 2 4 5 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 5) ( q u oti n g K a yt or v. El e c. B o at C or p. , 6 0 9 F. 3 d 5 3 7, 5 4 5 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 0)) ( citi n g A n d ers o n v. Li b ert y L o b b y, I n c. , 4 7 7 U. S. 2 4 2, 2 4 9 – 5 0 ( 1 9 8 6)). A g e n ui n e iss u e of f a ct e xists w h e n t h er e is s uffi ci e nt “ e vi d e n c e o n w hi c h t h e j ur y c o ul d r e as o n a bl y fi n d f or t h e [ n o n m o vi n g p art y]. ” A n d ers o n , 4 7 7 U. S. at 2 5 2. T h e “ m er e e xist e n c e of a s ci ntill a of e vi d e n c e ” is n ot s uffi ci e nt t o d ef e at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt. I d. T h e c o urt’s f u n cti o n is t o d e ci d e “ w h et h er, aft er r es ol vi n g all a m bi g uiti es a n d dr a wi n g all i nf er e n c es i n f a v or of t h e n o n m o vi n g p art y, a r ati o n al j ur or c o ul d fi n d i n f a v or of t h at p art y. ” Pi nt o v. Allst at e I ns. C o. , 2 2 1 F. 3 d 3 9 4, 3 9 8 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 0). b. C h oi c e of l a w a n al ysis Pl ai ntiffs cl ai m t h at D ef e n d a nt br e a c h e d its d ut y of c ar e t o Pl ai ntiffs b y all o wi n g a visi bl y i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g er t o b o ar d t h e pl a n e a n d c o nti n ui n g t o s er v e al c o h ol t o t h e p ass e n g er i n 9 vi ol ati o n of Titl e 1 4, C o d e of F e d er al R e g ul ati o ns § § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c). ( S A C ¶ 3 2.) T h e y ar g u e t h at n o c o nfli ct of l a ws a n al ysis is n e c ess ar y t o e v al u at e t his cl ai m b e c a us e t h er e ar e n o r el e v a nt “ c o nfli cti n g i nt er pr et ati o n of Titl e 1 4, C o d e of F e d er al R e g ul ati o ns, § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c). ” ( Pls.’ M e m. 1 2 – 1 4.) Pl ai ntiffs f urt h er ar g u e t h at, t o t h e e xt e nt t h e C o urt d o es c o n d u ct a c o n d u ct of l a ws a n al ysis, Ari z o n a l a w a p pli es b e c a us e Ari z o n a is w h er e D ef e n d a nt “ vi ol at e d t h e f e d er al l a ws all o wi n g t h e i nt o xi c at e d S a nti a g o t o b o ar d t h e r e d- e y e t o J F K. ” ( I d. at 1 6.) T h e y cl ai m t h at it is n ot “f ort uit o us ” t h at t h e i n ci d e nt o c c urr e d i n Ari z o n a b e c a u s e D ef e n d a nt “ c h os e t o est a blis h a n Ari z o n a h u b a n d st aff it wit h Ari z o n a e m pl o y e es, ” s u c h t h at “it w as e ntir el y f or es e e a bl e t h at [ D ef e n d a nt] mi g ht u nl a wf ull y b o ar d a n i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g er i n Ari z o n a. ” ( Pls.’ R e pl y i n S u p p. of Pls.’ M ot. ( “ Pls’ R e pl y ”) 5 – 6, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 3.) T h e y als o ar g u e t h at Ari z o n a “ h as s h o w n a si g nifi c a nt i nt er est i n off eri n g s af e air tr a ns p ort ati o n. ” ( I d. at 7.) D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at Pl ai ntiffs’ cl ai m t h at n o c h oi c e - of-l a w a n al ysis is n e c ess ar y “is i n c o nsist e nt wit h t h eir p ositi o n t h at t h eir cl ai ms ar e n ot pr e e m pt e d b y f e d er al l a w. ” (D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 3 n. 1 1 .) I n a d diti o n, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at T e x as l a w a p pli es t o t his c as e b e c a us e i n c as es i n v ol vi n g a vi ati o n, c o urts d et er mi n e “t h e pl a c e of t h e wr o n g as t h e l o c ati o n w h er e t h e a ct u al mis c o n d u ct t o o k pl a c e — n ot w h er e t h e mis c o n d u ct h a d a n o p er ati v e eff e ct. ” ( I d. at 1 3 – 1 4.) D ef e n d a n t f urt h er cl ai ms t h at its all e g e d mis c o n d u ct, “ i. e., its f ail ur e t o pr o p erl y tr ai n gr o u n d a n d fli g ht cr e w o n h o w t o h a n dl e dr u n k p ass e n g ers a n d r ef us e t h e m p ass a g e, ” o c c urr e d i n T e x as, w h er e all of its “ cr e w tr ai ni n g pr o gr a ms ar e d e v el o p e d a n d d eli v er e d. ” ( I d. at 1 5.) “ U n d er t h e l a w of N e w Y or k, t h e f or u m st at e, t h e first st e p i n a c h oi c e of l a w a n al ysis is t o d et er mi n e w h et h er a n a ct u al c o nfli ct e xists b et w e e n t h e l a ws of t h e j uris di cti o ns i n v ol v e d. ” F or est P ar k Pi ct ur es v. U ni v ers al T el e visi o n N et w or k, I n c., 6 8 3 F. 3 d 4 2 4, 4 3 3 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 2) 10 ( citi n g I n r e Allst at e I ns. C o. ( St ol arz), 8 1 N. Y. 2 d 2 1 9, 2 2 3 ( 1 9 9 3)); s e e als o Ki ns e y v. N. Y. Ti m es C o. , 9 9 1 F. 3 d 1 7 1, 1 7 6 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 2 1). W h er e t h er e is n o c o nfli ct, “ a N e w Y or k c o urt will dis p e ns e wit h c h oi c e of l a w a n al ysis; a n d if N e w Y or k l a w is a m o n g t h e r el e v a nt c h oi c es, N e w Y or k c o urts ar e fr e e t o a p pl y it. ” I nt’l B us. M a c hi n es C or p. v. Li b ert y M ut. I ns. C o., 3 6 3 F. 3 d 1 3 7, 1 4 3 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 4) ( cit ati o ns o mitt e d). “ W h er e j uris di cti o n is pr e di c at e d o n di v ersit y of citi z e ns hi p, a f e d er al c o urt m ust a p pl y t h e c h oi c e-of -l a w r ul es of t h e f or u m st at e. ” T h e a v. Kl ei n h a n dl er , 8 0 7 F. 3 d 4 9 2, 4 9 7 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 5) ( citi n g F or est P ar k Pi ct ur es , 6 8 3 F. 3 d at 4 3 3); s e e als o Kl a x o n C o. v. St e nt or El e c. Mf g. C o. , 3 1 3 U. S. 4 8 7, 4 9 6 ( 1 9 4 1). “ N e w Y or k c o urts c o nfr o nt e d wit h a c h oi c e of l a w iss u e i n t orts c o n d u ct a n ‘ i nt er est a n al ysis,’ ass essi n g w hi c h of t h e c o m p eti n g j uris di cti o ns h as t h e gr e at est i nt er est i n s e ei n g its l a w a p pli e d t o t h e m att er at iss u e. ” Sti c hti n g T er B e h arti gi n g V a n d e B el a n g e n V a n O u d a a n d e el h o u d ers I n H et K a pit a al V a n S a y b olt I nt’l B. V. v. S c hr ei b er , 4 0 7 F. 3 d 3 4, 5 0 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 5) ( q u oti n g P a d ul a v. Lil ar n Pr o p. C or p. , 8 4 N. Y. 2 d 5 1 9, 5 2 1 ( 1 9 9 4)); s e e als o Ki ns e y , 9 9 1 F. 3 d at 1 7 6 ( “I n t ort c as es, N e w Y or k ‘ a p pli es t h e l a w of t h e st at e wit h t h e m ost si g nifi c a nt i nt er est i n t h e liti g ati o n.’ ( q u oti n g L e e v. B a n k ers Tr ust C o. , 1 6 6 F. 3 d 5 4 0, 5 4 5 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 9))). “[ T] h e i nt er est a n al ysis is a p pli e d diff er e ntl y d e p e n di n g o n w h et h er t h e r ul es i n q u esti o n ar e c o n d u ct-r e g ul ati n g r ul es t h at p e o pl e us e as a g ui d e t o g o v er ni n g t h eir pri m ar y c o n d u ct, or l oss- all o c ati n g r ul es t h at pr o hi bit, assi g n, or li mit li a bilit y aft er t h e t ort o c c urs. ” Li c ci e x r el. Li c ci v. L e b a n es e C a n a di a n B a n k, S A L , 7 3 9 F. 3 d 4 5, 4 9 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 3) ( cit ati o n a n d i nt er n al q u ot ati o n m ar ks o mitt e d). St a n d ar ds of c ar e ar e c o n d u ct-r e g ul ati n g r ul es. C o o n e y v. Os g o o d M a c h., I n c. , 8 1 N. Y. 2 d 6 6, 7 2 ( 1 9 9 3); s e e als o F ar g as v. Ci n ci n n ati M a c h., L L C , 9 8 6 F. S u p p. 2 d 4 2 0, 4 2 3 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 3) ( “ C o n d u ct- r e g ul ati n g r ul es ar e d efi n e d as t h os e t h at ‘h a v e t h e pr o p h yl a cti c eff e ct of g o v er ni n g c o n d u ct t o pr e v e nt i nj uri es fr o m o c c urri n g.’ ” ( q u oti n g 11 P a d ul a , 8 4 N. Y. 2 d at 5 2 2)). W h e n a c o n d u ct -r e g ul ati n g r ul e is at iss u e, “t h e l a w of t h e j uris di cti o n w h er e t h e [ all e g e dl y t orti o us a cts] o c c urr e d will g e n er all y a p pl y b e c a us e t h at j uris di cti o n h as t h e gr e at est i nt er est i n r e g ul ati n g b e h a vi or wit hi n its b or d ers. ” Li c ci , 7 3 9 F. 3 d at 4 9 & 4 9 n. 3 ( alt er ati o n i n ori gi n al) ( c oll e cti n g c as es); s e e als o B ull o c k v. C a es ars E nt. C or p., 8 3 F. S u p p. 3 d 4 2 0, 4 2 3 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 5) ( n oti n g t h at w h e n a c o n d u ct-r e g ul ati n g r ul e is at iss u e, “t h e l a w of t h e pl a c e of t h e t ort ‘ will us u all y h a v e a pr e d o mi n a nt, if n ot e x cl usi v e, c o n c er n’” ( q u oti n g P a d ul a , 8 4 N. Y. 2 d at 5 2 2)). “ W h er e t h e d ef e n d a nt’s mis c o n d u ct a n d t h e pl ai ntiff’s i nj ur y o c c ur i n diff er e nt j uris di cti o ns, t h e pl a c e of t h e t ort is t h e j uris di cti o n w h er e t h e ‘l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y’ t o m a k e t h e d ef e n d a nt li a bl e o c c urr e d. ” I n r e S e pt e m b er 1 1t h Liti g ati o n, 4 9 4 F. S u p p. 2 d 2 3 2, 2 3 9 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 0 7) ( q u oti n g S c h ultz v. B o y S c o uts of A m eri c a, I n c. , 6 5 N. Y. 2 d 1 8 9, 1 9 5 ( 1 9 8 5)); s e e als o J a k u bi a k v. Q u a nt u m S c a p e C or p. , N o. 2 0-C V - 1 0 8 4 2, 2 0 2 1 W L 5 3 3 1 7 2 2, at * 5 ( S. D. N. Y. N o v. 1 6, 2 0 2 1) (s a m e); Y o u n g m a n v. R o b ert B os c h L L C , 9 2 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 4 1 1, 4 1 8 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 3) (s a m e). N ot a bl y, t his pri n ci pl e “is n ot c his el e d i n st o n e, b ut r at h er gi v es w a y w h e n it is at w ar wit h st at e i nt er ests s o t h at t h e m or e g e n er al pri n ci pl es of i nt er est a n al ysis a p pl y. ” M ast er C ar d I nt.’l I n c. v. Ni k e, I n c., 1 6 4 F. S u p p. 3 d 5 9 2, 6 0 5 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 6); se e Si m o n v. P hili p M orris I n c., 1 2 4 F. S u p p. 2 d 4 6, 5 7 – 5 8 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 0 0) (st ati n g t h at “t h e ‘l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y t est’ d o es n ot dis pl a c e N e w Y or k i nt er est a n al ysis ”); s e e als o A H W I n v. P’s hi p v. Citi g r o u p, I n c., 9 8 0 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 1 0, 5 2 3 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 3) (st ati n g t h at “ c o urts d o n ot m e c h a ni c all y c o m bi n e l ex l o ci d eli cti a n d t h e ‘l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y’ t est w h e n t h e ‘l ast e v e nt’ at iss u e is n ot t h e c o n d u ct t h at t h e r ul e r e g ul at es ”). 12 i. Alt h o u g h t h e r e is a n a ct u al c o nfli ct wit h r e g a r d t o Pl ai ntiffs’ o v e r all n e gli g e n c e cl ai m, t h e r e is n o a ct u al c o nfli ct wit h r e g a r d t o D ef e n d a nt all e g e dl y b o a r di n g a visi bl y i nt o xi c at e d p e rs o n I n t h e S A C, Pl ai ntiffs all e g e t h at D ef e n d a nt a ct e d n e gli g e ntl y w h e n it br e a c h e d its d ut y of c ar e t o Pl ai ntiffs b y ( 1) all o wi n g S a nti a g o t o b o ar d t h e pl a n e, ( 2) c o nti n ui n g t o s er v e hi m al c o h ol, a n d ( 3) f aili n g t o pr ot e ct L a n e fr o m s e x u al ass a ult. ( S A C ¶ 3 2.) Pl ai ntiffs s e e k s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt s ol el y o n t h e iss u e of w h et h er D ef e n d a nt “ p er mitt e d t h e u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g of a p ers o n w h o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d, vi ol ati n g Titl e 1 4, C o d e of F e d er al R e g ul ati o ns, § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d § 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c). ” 1 ( Pls.’ M ot. 1.) 1. T h e r e is n o c o nfli ct b et w e e n t h e i nt e r p r et ati o n of 1 4 C. F. R. § § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c) b y T e x as a n d A ri z o n a W hil e D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at a c h oi c e- of-l a w a n al ysis is n e c ess ar y, ( D efs.’ M e m. 1 3), D ef e n d a nt f ails t o s h o w t h at t h er e is a n “ a ct u al c o nfli ct ” b et w e e n t h e r ul es of t h e r el e v a nt j uris di cti o ns p ert ai ni n g t o w h et h er D ef e n d a nt f ail e d i n its d ut y p urs u a nt t o 1 4 C. F. R. § § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c) b y “ p er mit[ti n g] t h e u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g of a p ers o n w h o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d. ” S e e Ki ns e y , 9 9 1 F. 3 d at 1 7 6. D ef e n d a nt d oes n ot p oi nt t o a n y “ a ct u al c o nfli ct ” b et w e e n T e x as’s a n d Ari z o n a’s i nt er pr et ati o n of 1 4 C. F. R. § § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c), n or d o es t h er e a p p e ar t o b e o n e. S e e Z u c k er m a n v. M etr o p olit a n M us e u m of Art , 3 0 7 F. S u p p. 3 d 3 0 4, 3 1 6 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 8) ( “ T h e c o urt will n ot e n g a g e i n t h e c h oi c e- of -l a w a n al ysis if t h er e is n o a ct u al c o nfli ct. ”). 1 I n t h eir m e m or a n d u m i n s u p p ort of t h eir m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt, Pl ai ntiffs a p p e ar t o ar g u e t h at 1 4 C. F. R. § 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c) cr e at es a pri v at e c a us e of a cti o n. ( Pls.’ M e m. 1 0 – 1 2.) R e g ar dl ess of w h et h er t his is tr u e, h o w e v er, t h e S A C d o es n ot r ais e a n y su c h c a us e of a cti o n a n d m e nti o ns 1 4 C. F. R. § § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c) o nl y i n t h e c o nt e xt of D ef e n d a nt’s d ut y of c ar e i n r el ati o n t o Pl ai ntiffs’ n e gli g e n c e cl ai m. ( S A C ¶ 3 2.) 13 2. T h e r e is a n a ct u al c o nfli ct wit h r e g a r d t o Pl ai ntiffs’ o v e r all n e gli g e n c e cl ai m A c h oi c e -of -l a w a n al ysis is n e c ess ar y f or Pl ai ntiffs’ o v er all n e gli g e n c e cl ai m b e c a us e a n a ct u al c o nfli ct e xists b et w e e n t h e r el e v a nt T e x as a n d Ari z o n a n e gli g e n c e l a w. T h e el e m e nts of a n e gli g e n c e cl ai m u n d er T e x as a n d Ari z o n a l a w ar e si mil ar. S e e G o o d m a n v. St a pl es T h e Offi c e S u p erst or e, L L C , 6 4 4 F. 3 d 8 1 7, 8 2 2 ( 9t h Cir. 2 0 1 1) ( “ T o est a blis h a cl ai m of n e gli g e n c e u n d er Ari z o n a l a w, a pl ai ntiff m ust pr o v e t h at ( 1) d ef e n d a nt o w e d pl ai ntiff s o m e d ut y, ( 2) d ef e n d a nt br e a c h e d t h at d ut y, ( 3) d ef e n d a nt’s br e a c h c a us e d pl ai ntiff’s i nj uri es, a n d ( 4) pl ai ntiff s ust ai n e d a ct u al d a m a g es. ”); M arti n ez v. W al gr e e n C o. , 9 3 5 F. 3 d 3 9 6, 3 9 9 ( 5t h Cir. 2 0 1 9) ( “ T e x as l a w i nstr u cts t h at ‘[ a] n e gli g e n c e c a us e of a cti o n h as t hr e e el e m e nts: 1) a l e g al d ut y; 2) br e a c h of t h at d ut y; a n d 3) d a m a g es pr o xi m at el y r es ulti n g fr o m t h e br e a c h.’ ” (i nt er n al cit ati o ns o mitt e d)). H o w e v er, u n d er T e x as l a w, a p art y w h o c o ntr ols t h e pr e mis es h as a d ut y t o pr ot e ct i n vit e es fr o m t hir d p arti es’ cri mi n al a cts o nl y if h e k n o ws or h as r e as o n t o k n o w of a n u nr e as o n a bl e a n d f or es e e a bl e ris k of h ar m. Ti m b er w al k A p art m e nts, P art n ers, I n c. v. C ai n , 9 7 2 S. W. 2 d 7 4 9, 7 5 6 ( T e x. 1 9 9 8) ( q u oti n g L ef m ar k M a n a g e m e nt C o. v. Ol d , 9 4 6 S. W. 2 d 5 2, 5 3 ( T e x. 1 9 9 8)). T o est a blis h f or es e e a bilit y, “t h e e vi d e n c e m ust r e v e al ‘s p e cifi c pr e vi o us cri m es o n or n e ar t h e pr e mis es.’ ” I d. ( q u oti n g W al k er v. H arris , 9 2 4 S. W. 2 d 3 7 5, 3 7 7 ( T e x. 1 9 9 6)); (s e e Pls.’ M e m. at 1 5.) T h e Ari z o n a S u pr e m e C o urt, o n t h e ot h er h a n d, h as h el d t h at “[f] or es e e a bilit y . . . . is m or e pr o p erl y a p pli e d t o t h e f a ct u al d et er mi n ati o ns of br e a c h a n d c a us ati o n t h a n t o t h e l e g al d et er mi n ati o n of d ut y ” a n d t h at “[ w] h et h er a n i nj ur y t o a p arti c ul ar pl ai ntiff w as f or es e e a bl e b y a p arti c ul ar d ef e n d a nt n e c ess aril y i n v ol v es a n i n q uir y i nt o t h e s p e cifi c f a cts of a n i n di vi d u al c as e. ” Gi ps o n v. K as e y , 1 5 0 P. 3 d 2 2 8, 2 3 1 ( Ari z. 2 0 0 7) ( e n b a n c). B e c a us e t his diff er e n c e i n a n al y zi n g d ut y of c ar e a n d f or es e e a bilit y h as “ a si g nifi c a nt p ossi bl e 14 eff e ct o n t h e o ut c o m e of t h e tri al, ” a c h oi c e of l a w a n al ysis is a p pr o pri at e. Si m o n , 1 2 4 F. S u p p. 2 d at 7 1. ii. A ri z o n a l a w a p pli es t o Pl ai ntiffs’ n e gli g e n c e cl ai m T h e C o urt fi n ds t h at Ari z o n a l a w a p pli es t o Pl ai ntiffs’ n e gli g e n c e cl ai m, as Ari z o n a is cl os er t h a n a n y ot h er st at e t o b ei n g “t h e pl a c e of t h e t ort. ” B ull o c k , 8 3 F. S u p p. 3 d at 4 2 3. Pl ai ntiffs’ n e gli g e n c e cl ai m is b as e d o n D ef e n d a nt’s d e cisi o n t o all o w S a nti a g o o nt o t h e pl a n e; its d e cisi o n t o c o nti n u e s er vi n g S a nti a g o al c o h ol, all e g e dl y i n vi ol ati o n of f e d er al r e g ul ati o ns a g ai nst s er vi n g al c o h ol t o i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g ers; its all e g e d f ail ur e t o h e e d “t h e w ar ni n g si g ns of s e x u al ass a ult, dr u n k e n n ess, a n d t h e t hr e at p os e d b y ” S a nti a g o, e v e n aft er t h e fli g ht cr e w w as i nf or m e d of his b e h a vi or; a n d its all e g e d f ail ur e t o tr ai n its c a bi n cr e w a n d gr o u n d cr e w t o d e al wit h dr u n k p ass e n g ers a n d t o pr ot e ct p ass e n g ers fr o m s e x u al ass a ult. ( S A C ¶ 3 2.) M ost of t h es e e v e nts o c c urr e d w hil e t h e pl a n e w as i n t h e air, m a ki n g t h eir l o c ati o n i m p ossi bl e t o as c ert ai n, b ut t h e pl a n e d e p art e d fr o m Ari z o n a a n d t h e d e cisi o n t o all o w a n all e g e d l y i nt o xi c at e d S a nti a g o o nt o t h e pl a n e o c c urr e d i n Ari z o n a. Alt h o u g h D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at a n y mis c o n d u ct t o o k pl a c e i n a diff er e n t l o c ati o n t h a n t h e a ct u al i nj ur y a n d t h at t h e pl a c e of t h e t ort is t h e l o c ati o n of t h e mis c o n d u ct, w hi c h D ef e n d a nt ar g u es is T e x as, (se e D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 4 – 1 5), its ar g u m e nt is n ot s u p p ort e d b y t h e l a w. S e e H V Ass o cs. v. P N C B a n k, N. A., N o. 1 9C V - 7 4 3 8, 2 0 2 0 W L 5 8 1 9 5 5 9, at * 6 ( S. D. N. Y. S e pt. 3 0, 2 0 2 0) ( “[ W] h e n ‘t h e d ef e n d a nt’s . . . c o n d u ct o c c urs i n o n e j uris di cti o n a n d t h e pl ai ntiff’s i nj uri es ar e s uff er e d i n a n ot h er, t h e pl a c e of t h e wr o n g is c o nsi d er e d t o b e t h e pl a c e w h er e t h e l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y t o m a k e t h e a ct or li a bl e o c c urr e d.’ ” ( q u oti n g Dis c o v er Gr p., I n c. v. L e x m ar k I nt’l, I n c. , 3 3 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 7 8, 8 5 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 0 4))); I n r e S e pt e m b er 1 1t h Liti g ati o n, 4 9 4 F. S u p p. 2 d at 2 3 9 (“ W h er e t h e d ef e n d a nt’s mis c o n d u ct a n d t h e pl ai ntiff’s i nj ur y o c c ur i n diff er e nt j uris di cti o ns, t h e pl a c e of t h e t ort is t h e 15 j uris di cti o n w h er e t h e ‘l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y’ t o m a k e t h e d ef e n d a nt li a bl e o c c urr e d. ”). Th e “l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y ” t o m a k e D ef e n d a nt li a bl e t h e l o c ati o n of w hi c h c a n b e as c ert ai n e d wit h pr e cisi o n is t h e d e cisi o n t o all o w S a nti a g o t o b o ar d t h e pl a n e i n P h o e ni x. D ef e n d a nt ’s ar g u m e nts t o t h e c o ntr ar y ar e u n a v aili n g. First, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at T e x as is t h e pl a c e of t h e t ort b e c a us e “[ a]ll A m eri c a n cr e w tr ai ni n g pr o gr a ms ar e d e v el o p e d a n d d eli v er e d i n T e x as. ” ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 5.) It cl ai ms t h at alt h o u g h Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n n a m es s e v er al of D ef e n d a nt’s e m pl o y e es a n d a g e nts, it “ a d d u c es n o e vi d e n c e of mis c o n d u ct, ot h er t h a n t h at w hi c h is d eri v e d fr o m all e g e dl y p o or or n e gli g e nt tr ai ni n g b y ” D ef e n d a nt. ( I d. at 1 5 – 1 6.) H o w e v er , n ot all e v e nts gi vi n g ris e t o D ef e n d a nt’s li a bilit y o c c urr e d i n T e x as. If t h e all e g e d i n ci d e nt a b o ar d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 h a d n ot o c c urr e d, Pl ai ntiffs w o ul d n ot h a v e a c a us e of a cti o n a g ai nst D ef e n d a nt b as e d o n its tr ai ni n g pr a cti c es al o n e. S e e Y o u n g m a n , 9 2 3 F. S u p p. 2 d at 4 1 8 – 1 9 (st ati n g t h at it w o ul d b e “ n o ns e nsi c al ” if t h e “l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y ” t o m a k e t h e d ef e n d a nts li a bl e w er e t h e p ur c h as e of a t a bl e s a w i n N e w Y or k b e c a us e if t h e pl ai ntiff “ h a d n e v er us e d t h e t a bl e s a w aft er b u yi n g it i n N e w Y or k . . . h e w o ul d n e v er h a v e b e e n i nj ur e d a n d t h e d ef e n d a nts c o ul d n ot b e h el d li a bl e f or a n yt hi n g at all ”). T h e “l ast e v e nt n e c ess ar y ” t o m a k e D ef e n d a nt li a bl e o c c urr e d i n Ari z o n a a n d a b o ar d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 , e v e n if e arli er e v e nts o c c urr e d i n T e x as. D ef e n d a nt s u p p orts its ar g u m e nt wit h a cit ati o n t o D e uts c h v. N o v artis P h ar m a c e uti c als C or p. , b ut t h at c as e is disti n g uis h a bl e. (D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 3 – 1 4.) I n D e uts c h , t h e pl ai ntiffs i n a l a wsuit a g ai nst a p h ar m a c e uti c al c o m p a n y “s o u g ht p u niti v e d a m a g es b as e d u p o n all e g e d c or p or at e mis c o n d u ct o n t h e p art of ” t h e d ef e n d a nt. 7 2 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 2 1, 5 2 3 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 0). I n c o nsi d eri n g w hi c h l a w a p pli e d t o t h e r e q u est f or p u niti v e d a m a g es, t h e E ast er n Distri ct of N e w Y or k n ot e d t h at t h e b as es of t h e r e q u est all st e m m e d fr o m c or p or at e d e cisi o ns: f aili n g t o c o n d u ct a d e q u at e cli ni c al tri als, c o n c e ali n g i nf or m ati o n fr o m t h e F o o d a n d Dr u g A d mi nistr ati o n , 16 f aili n g t o dis cl os e i nf or m ati o n a b o ut t h e dr u g, a n d i n cr e asi n g t h e d os a g e a n d d osi n g s c h e d ul e f or t h e dr u g. I d. at 5 2 4 – 2 5. T h us, alt h o u g h t h e pl ai ntiffs li v e d i n N e w Y or k a n d w er e tr e at e d wit h t h e dr u gs i n N e w Y or k, t h e c o urt a p pli e d t h e l a w of N e w J ers e y, w h er e t h e dr u g c o m p a n y’s c or p or at e h e a d q u art ers w er e l o c at e d. I d. U nli k e i n D e uts c h , w h er e t h er e w er e “ n o all e g ati o n[s] ” t h at t h e r el e v a nt c or p or at e mis c o n d u ct h a d o c c urr e d i n N e w Y or k, t h e fi n al a cts of mis c o n d u ct t o o k pl a c e i n Ari z o n a a n d a b o ar d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0. I d. at 5 2 5. S e e als o I n r e Air Cr as h N e ar Cl ar e n c e Ctr. , N e w Y or k, o n F e br u ar y 1 2, 2 0 0 9, 7 9 8 F. S u p p. 2 d 4 8 1, 4 8 7, 4 9 0 ( W. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 1) ( a p pl yi n g t h e l a w of t h e st at e w h er e a pl a n e cr as h o c c urr e d r at h er t h a n t h e l a w of t h e st at e w h er e d ef e n d a nt airli n e w as h e a d q u art er e d a n d n oti n g t h at t h e “[ p]l ai ntiffs’ p u niti v e d a m a g es cl ai ms ar e n ot li mit e d t o w h a t o c c urr e d i n t h e d ef e n d a nts’ b o ar dr o o m. Alt h o u g h [t h e] [ p]l ai ntiffs all e g e t h at p u niti v e d a m a g es ar e w arr a nt e d b e c a us e [t h e] [ d] ef e n d a nts f ail e d t o i m pl e m e nt a d e q u at e s af et y pr o gr a ms a n d n e gli g e ntl y hir e d a n d tr ai n e d t h eir fli g ht cr e ws — all e g ati o ns t h at r e as o n a bl y i m pli c at e c or p or at e d e cisi o n- m a ki n g a n d p oli ci es — t h e y als o all e g e t h at [t h e] [ d]ef e n d a nts f ail e d t o a d e q u at el y s u p er vis e t h eir fli g ht cr e ws a n d n e gli g e ntl y o p er at e d a n air cr aft i n N e w Y or k i n a n u ns af e m a n n er, r es ulti n g i n t h e cr as h ”). S e c o n d, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at T e x as h as a gr e at er i nt er est t h a n Ari z o n a i n r e g ul ati n g t h e all e g e d mis c o n d u ct b e c a us e T e x as is w h er e “ a m aj or c or p or ati o n all e g e dl y e n g a g e d i n c or p or at e [ mis m a n a g e m e nt] t o t h e e xt e nt r e q uiri n g p u niti v e d a m a g es. ” (D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 7.) H o w e v er, w hil e T e x as d o es h a v e a n i nt er est i n r e g ul ati n g c or p or at e mis m a n a g e m e nt i n T e x as, Ari z o n a h as a n e q u al i nt er est i n r e g ul ati n g n e gli g e n c e i n Ari z o n a. F urt h er, Ari z o n a l a w st at es t h at “[ a] n y cri m e, t ort or ot h er wr o n g t h at is c o m mitt e d b y or a g ai nst a n a er o n a ut or p ass e n g er w hil e i n fli g ht o v er t his st at e is g o v er n e d b y t h e l a w of t his st at e. ” Ari z. R e v. St at. § 2 8- 8 2 0 8( A); (s e e Pl.’s M e m. 1 8.) W hil e D ef e n d a nts ar e c orr e ct t h at t his st at ut e d o es n ot a p pl y b e c a us e t h er e is n o 17 e vi d e n c e t h at t h e all e g e d ass a ult o c c urr e d o v er Ari z o n a r at h er t h a n o v er a diff er e nt st at e, ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 7 n. 1 2), t h e st at ut e n e v ert h el ess r efl e cts Ari z o n a’s d e m o nstr at e d i nt er est i n pr ot e cti n g airli n e p ass e n g ers. T hir d, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at t h e f a ct t h at its all e g e dl y n e gli g e nt a g e nts w er e p ost e d i n Ari z o n a i nst e a d of a n y ot h er l o c ati o n is “ w h oll y f ort uit o us. ” ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 5.) Alt h o u g h it is tr u e t h at “ a vi ati o n a c ci d e nts — es p e ci all y t h os e o c c urri n g i n i nt erst at e air tr a v el — m or e fr e q u e ntl y p os e sit u ati o ns i n w hi c h t h e pl a c e of a ct u al i nj ur y is w h oll y f ort uit o us a n d u ni m p ort a nt, ” S al o o m e y v. J e p p es e n & C o. , 7 0 7 F. 2 d 6 7 1, 6 7 5 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 8 3), (s e e D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 4), as Pl ai ntiffs n ot e, “[t] his is n ot a tr a gi c ‘f ort uit o us’ dis ast er o c c urri n g s o m e w h er e al o n g t h e r o ut e fr om Ari z o n a t o N e w Y or k, cr ossi n g t hr o u g h n u m er o us j uris di cti o ns a n d cr as hi n g i n a r a n d o m l o c ati o n,” ( P ls.’R e pl y 5). It is n ot “ w h oll y f ort uit o us ” t h at D ef e n d a nt’s a g e nts w er e p ost e d i n Ari z o n a, w h er e D ef e n d a nt c h os e t o p ost t h e m a n d t o o p er at e fli g hts. C o urts i n c as es i n v ol vi n g air pl a n e cr as h es h a v e si mil arl y d e cli n e d t o r ef er t o t h e l o c ati o n of t h e cr as h as “f ort uit o us ” w h er e it w as t h e p oi nt of arri v al or d e p art ur e or it w as ot h er wis e f or es e e a bl e t h at t h e cr as h w o ul d h a v e o c c urr e d t h er e. S e e J o h ns o n v. A v c o C or p. , N o. 0 7-C V - 1 6 9 5, 2 0 0 9 W L 4 0 4 2 7 4 7, at * 5 ( E. D. M o. N o v. 2 0, 2 0 0 9) (fi n di n g t h at “t h e air pl a n e di d n ot f ort uit o usl y cr as h i n I n di a n a ” w h er e t h e d e c e d e nt “ was a n I n di a n a r esi d e nt, o w n e d a n d st or e d t h e air pl a n e i n I n di a n a, a n d w as fl yi n g e ntir el y wit hi n I n di a n a w h e n h e cr as h e d ”); I n r e Air cr as h Dis ast er N e ar M o nr o e, Mi c h. o n J a n u ar y 9, 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 F. S u p p. 2 d 1 1 1 0, 1 1 1 3 ( E. D. Mi c h. 1 9 9 8) (st ati n g t h at “t h e air cr as h at iss u e h er e di d n ot o c c ur i n Mi c hi g a n as t h e r es ult of a m er e c oi n ci d e n c e ” b e c a us e “ D etr oit M etr o p olit a n Air p ort w as t his fli g ht’s d esti n ati o n, a n d t h e cr as h o c c urr e d as t h e pil ots b e g a n t h eir fi n al a p pr o a c h t o t h e air p ort ”); I n r e Dis ast er at D etr oit M etr o p olit a n Air p ort o n A u g ust 1 6, 1 9 8 7 , 7 5 0 F. S u p p. 7 9 3, 8 0 7 n. 2 2 ( E. D. Mi c h. 1 9 8 9) ( disti n g uis hi n g t h e c as e fr o m a 18 “ cl assi c ‘fl y o v er’ c as e ” a n d st ati n g t h at “ a cr as h at t h e ‘ h u b’ of a n airli n e c o m p a n y, t h e d esti n ati o n a n d p oi nt of d e p art ur e of s u bst a n ti al air tr affi c, is n ot f ort uit o us, i n t h at it is f or es e e a bl e t h at a n a c ci d e nt mi g ht o c c ur t h er e ”); E m m art v. Pi p er Air cr aft C or p. , 6 5 9 F. S u p p. 8 4 3, 8 4 5 ( S. D. Fl a. 1 9 8 7) (st ati n g t h at t h e l o c ati o n of a pl a n e cr as h w as “ n ot as f ort uit o us as [t h e pl ai ntiff s] w o ul d h a v e t his [ c] o urt b eli e v e it is ” b e c a us e “t h e o nl y f ort uit y w o ul d b e t h at t h e pl a n e cr as h o c c ur i n o n e of [] t w o c o nti g u o us st at es, a n d t h e st at e of d e p art ur e c o ul d r e as o n a bl y b e e x p e ct e d t o b e t h at st at e ”); M or g a n G u ar. Tr ust C o. of N e w Y or k v. G arr ett C or p. , 6 2 5 F. S u p p. 7 5 2, 7 6 0 n. 1 2 ( S. D. N. Y. 1 9 8 6) (fi n di n g t h at “t h e sit e of t his a c ci d e nt w as n ot s o f ort uit o us as it mi g ht s e e m ” w h er e “t h e d e cisi o n t o fl y t h e pl a n e i n its i m p air e d c o n diti o n w as m a d e i n N e w Y or k, ” “ al m ost t h e e ntir e fli g ht . . . w as o v er N e w Y or k St at e, ” a n d “ al m ost all of t h e t orti o us c o n d u ct t h at c a us e d t h e cr as h — t h e i nst all ati o n, m ai nt e n a n c e, i ns p e cti o n, a n d t esti n g of t h e d ef e cti v e p arts — o c c urr e d i n N e w Y or k ”); s e e als o L e v y v. M arri ott I nt’l I n c., N o. 0 8-C V - 4 7 9 5, 2 0 1 1 W L 1 5 4 2 0 8 2, at * 2 ( E. D. N. Y. A pr. 2 1, 2 0 1 1) ( “ T his c as e d o es n ot i n v ol v e a f ort uit o us a ct b e c a us e b ot h p arti es c h os e t o ass o ci at e t h e ms el v es wit h t h e st at e of M ass a c h us etts. ”); W o n g v. M arri ott H ot el S er vs., I n c. , N o. 0 5-C V - 4 5 2 4, 2 0 0 9 W L 5 5 3 8 6 4 4, at * 4 ( E. D. N. Y. D e c. 1 8, 2 0 0 9) (fi n di n g t h at c o urts h a v e disti n g uis h e d b et w e e n c as es w h er e pl ai ntiffs’ c o n n e cti o n t o t h e e v e nt w as p ur el y f ort uit o us a n d “ c as es w h er e b ot h p arti es v ol u nt aril y ass o ci at e d t h e ms el v es wit h t h e l o c us st at e ”). D ef e n d a nt cit es t o P e sc at or e v . P a n. A m. W orl d Air w a ys, I n c. i n s u p p ort of its ar g u m e nt b ut t h at c as e is disti n g uis h a bl e. ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 4) P e s c at or e w as a wr o n gf ul d e at h s uit a g ai nst a n airli n e aft er a b o m b e x pl osi o n c a us e d a n air pl a n e t o cr as h i n S c otl a n d. 9 7 F. 3 d 1, 3 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 6). T h e b o m b w as pl a c e d o n t h e pl a n e i n Fr a n kf urt b ef or e t h e pl a n e w as tr a nsf err e d t o L o n d o n a n d e m b ar k e d o n a fli g ht t o N e w Y or k. S e e I n r e Air Dis ast er at L o c k er bi e, S c ot. o n 19 D e c. 2 1, 1 9 8 8 , 3 7 F. 3 d 8 0 4, 8 1 1 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 4), a br o g at e d f or ot h er r e as o ns b y Zi c h er m a n v. K or e a n Air Li n es C o., Lt d. , 5 1 6 U. S. 2 1 7 ( 1 9 9 6). T h e S e c o n d Cir c uit n ot e d t h at “[ a]lt h o u g h t h e e x pl osi o n o c c urr e d o v er S c otl a n d, ” t h e “ c a us ati v e mis c o n d u ct ” o c c urr e d i n L o n d o n or Fr a n kf urt. P es c at or e , 9 7 F. 3 d at 1 3. It h el d t h at, gi v e n t h at “ n o n e gli g e n c e or mis c o n d u ct t o o k pl a c e i n S c otl a n d, a n d . . . n o d a m a g es w er e i n c urr e d i n S c otl a n d, t h er e is r e all y n o r e as o n at all w h y t h e c o m p e ns a bilit y of t h e pl ai ntiff’s d a m a g es s h o ul d b e g o v er n e d b y S c ottis h l a w. ” I d. at 1 4. It ulti m at el y a p pl i e d t h e l a w of O hi o, w h er e t h e wr o n gf ul d e at h pl ai ntiff r esi d e d a n d w as d o mi cil e d. I d. at 5. U nli k e i n P es c at or e , w h er e “ n o n e gli g e n c e or mis c o n d u ct t o o k pl a c e i n S c otl a n d, ” D ef e n d a nt’s a g e nts all e g e dl y a ct e d n e gli g e ntl y i n Ari z o n a b y all o wi n g S a nti a g o t o b o ar d t h e pl a n e. I d. at 1 4 ; s e e als o Si m o n, 1 2 4 F. S u p p. 2 d at 6 1 ( “ Alt h o u g h i n c as es of mi x e d d o mi cil e, N e w Y o r k g e n er all y a p pli es t h e l a w w h er e t h e i nj ur y o c c urr e d, t h e c o urt of a p p e als i n P es c at or e d e m o nstr at e d t h at t h e sit e of c a us ati v e mis c o n d u ct als o m a y b e r el e v a nt t o t his i n q uir y. ”). F or t h e f or e g oi n g r e as o ns, t h e c o urt a p pli es Ari z o n a s u bst a nti v e l a w t o Pl ai ntiffs’ n e gli g e n c e cl ai m. c. N e gli g e n c e cl ai m b as e d o n t h e b o a r di n g of S a nti a g o w h o a p p e a r e d t o b e i nt o xi c at e d Pl ai ntiffs s e e k s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n t h eir cl ai m t h at D ef e n d a nt “ p er mitt e d t h e u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g of a p ers o n w h o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d, vi ol ati n g Titl e 1 4, C o d e of F e d er al R e g ul ati o ns, § 9 1. 1 7( b) a n d § 1 2 1. 5 7 5( c). ” ( Pls.’ M ot. 1.) I n s u p p ort, Pl ai ntiffs cl ai m t h at “t h er e is n o e vi d e n c e c o u nt eri n g S a nti a g o’s a p p e ar a n c e of i nt o xi c ati o n. ” ( Pls.’ M e m. at 9.) Pl ai ntiffs ar g u e t h at s o m e wit n ess es’ in a bilit y t o r e c all a n yt hi n g u n us u al a b o ut t h e fli g ht d o es n ot cr e at e a g e n ui n e iss u e of f a ct, citi n g t o c as e l a w t o ar g u e t h at n eit h er “ c urs or y all e g ati o ns ” n or wit n ess es’ m e m or y l a ps es c a n cr e at e a g e n ui n e iss u e of f a ct pr e cl u di n g s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt. ( Pls.’ R e pl y 1 – 20 3.) F urt h er, Pl ai ntiffs ar g u e t h at t h e p ossi bilit y of “irr el e v a nt mi dfli g ht f a ct u al dis p ut es ” ar e i ns uffi ci e nt t o o v er c o m e t h e e vi d e n c e r e g ar di n g b o ar di n g. (I d. at 2 – 4.) D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at Pl ai ntiffs’ cl ai m t h at S a nti a g o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d “is e ntir el y pr e mis e d o n t h e d e p ositi o n t esti m o n y of ” A n di n o a n d t h e p ass e n g er i n s e at 1 2 C a n d t h at t h es e wit n ess es’ a c c o u nts c o nfli ct e d wit h e a c h ot h er. ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 6 –7.) I n a d diti o n, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at “[t] h er e is pl e nt y of e vi d e n c e i n t h e r e c or d c o ntr a di cti n g ” t h es e t w o p ass e n g ers’ v ersi o n of e v e nts. ( I d. at 8.) I n s u p p ort, D ef e n d a nt cl ai ms t h at dir e ct e vi d e n c e c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e st at e m e nt i n Pr a d o’s e v e nt r e p ort t h at “[ d] uri n g t h e i nfli g ht s er vi c e e v er yt hi n g s e e m e d t o b e v er y n or m al b et w e e n ” L a n e a n d S a nti a g o, a n d i n H v ast a’s t esti m o n y t h at S a nti a g o l o o k e d “ n or m al ” a n d t h at t h er e w as “ n ot hi n g n ot e w ort h y i n his w al k or a p p e ar a n c e ” s e v er al h o urs i nt o t h e fli g ht. ( Pr a d o R e p ort; D ef.’s O p p’ n 8 – 1 1.) D ef e n d a nt als o ar g u es t h at t h er e is cir c u mst a nti al e vi d e n c e i n t h e f or m of H a n n a h’s t esti m o n y t h at s h e di d n ot r e c all s e ei n g a n y o n e b o ar d t h e fli g ht w h o l o o k e d i nt o xi c at e d, a n d T arr’s t esti m o n y t h at if s h e h a d s e e n a n i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g er, s h e w o ul d h a v e r e p ort e d it t o h er s u p er vis or. ( I d. at 1 1.) F urt h er, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at “ w h er e a m at eri al q u esti o n f or tri al c o n c er ns t h e v er y e xist e n c e or o c c urr e n c e of a c o n diti o n at a p arti c ul ar p oi nt i n ti m e, c o urts h a v e h el d t h at a wit n ess’ t esti m o n y r e g ar di n g t h eir f ail ur e t o n oti c e or r e c all t h at c o n diti o n d uri n g t h e r el e v a nt ti m efr a m e is s uffi ci e nt t o d ef e at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt. ” (I d. at 1 2.) As a n i niti al m att er, t h e C o urt n ot es t h at c o ntr ar y t o D ef e n d a nt’s cl ai m, Pr a d o’s a n d H v ast a’s t esti m o n y is n ot “ dir e ct e vi d e n c e ” t h at S a nti a g o di d n ot a p p e ar t o b e i nt o xi c at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e. Dir e ct e vi d e n c e “ pr o v es a f a ct wit h o ut i nf er e n c e or pr es u m pti o n, ” w hil e cir c u mst a nti al e vi d e n c e is “ b as e d o n i nf er e n c e a n d n ot o n p ers o n al k n o wl e d g e or o bs er v ati o n. ” E vi d e n c e , Bl a c k’s L a w Di cti o n ar y ( 1 1t h e d. 2 0 1 9); s e e als o T yl er v. B et hl e h e m St e el C or p. , 9 5 8 21 F. 2 d 1 1 7 6, 1 1 8 3 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 2) ( “ N or m all y, ‘ d ir e ct e vi d e n c e’ is d es cri b e d as e vi d e n c e t e n di n g t o s h o w, wit h o ut r es ort t o i nf er e n c e, t h e e xist e n c e of a f a ct i n q u esti o n. T his is oft e n c o ntr ast e d wit h ‘ cir c u mst a nti al’, or ‘i n dir e ct’ e vi d e n c e, w hi c h r e q uir es t h e f a ctfi n d er t o t a k e c ert ai n i nf er e nti al st e ps b ef or e t h e f a ct i n q u esti o n is pr o v e d. ”). B e c a us e t h e q u esti o n is w h et h er S a nti a g o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e, Pr a d o’s t esti m o n y a b o ut S a nti a g o’s a p p e ar a n c e d uri n g i n- fli g ht s er vi c e a n d H v ast a’s t esti m o n y a b o ut S a nti a g o’s g ait “ a c o u pl e h o urs i nt o t h e fli g ht ” pr o vi d e, at m ost, cir c u mst a nti al e vi d e n c e fr o m w hi c h a n i nf er e n c e c a n b e dr a w n as t o S a nti a g o’s a p p e ar a n c e w hil e b o ar di n g. (S e e Pr a d o R e p ort ; H v ast a D e p . 4 0: 2 2 – 2 5.) H o w e v er, t h e cir c u mst a nti al e vi d e n c e is s uffi ci e nt t o pr e cl u d e s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n t his iss u e. S e e G a yl e v. G o n y e a , 3 1 3 F. 3 d 6 7 7, 6 8 4 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 2) ( “[ C]ir c u mst a nti al e vi d e n c e m a y b e . . . s uffi ci e nt t o r ais e a g e n ui n e iss u e of m at eri al f a ct pr e cl u di n g t h e gr a nt of s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt. ”) Pr a d o’s e v e nt r e p ort st at e d t h at “ e v er yt hi n g s e e m e d t o b e v er y n or m al b et w e e n ” L a n e a n d S a nti a g o d uri n g i nfli g ht s er vi c e. ( Pr a d o R e p ort.) H v ast a t estifi e d t h at S a nti a g o’s g ait w as “ n or m al ” a n d t h at h e di d n ot l o o k dr u n k w h e n s h e o bs er v e d hi m w al ki n g d o w n t h e aisl e of t h e pl a n e a f e w h o urs i nt o t h e fli g ht. (S e e Pr a d o R e p ort; H v ast a D e p. 4 0: 2 2 – 4 5: 1 6; 4 9: 3 – 2 4.) Alt h o u g h a f e w h o urs c o ul d b e e n o u g h ti m e f or S a nti a g o t o b e c o m e s o b er if h e w as i nt o xi c at e d w h e n b o ar di n g, t h e p ass e n g er i n s e at 1 2 C a n d A n di n o t estifi e d t h at S a nti a g o or d er e d m or e dri n ks aft er b o ar di n g t h e pl a n e, ( s e e 1 2 C D e p. 4 0: 1 – 4 1: 1 3, 7 1: 2 – 8; A n di n o D e p. 1 7: 6 – 1 6; 1 8: 5 – 1 2; 1 9: 4 – 9), a n d t h e fli g ht s er vi c e r e c or ds i n di c at e t h at S a nti a g o or d er e d t w o “li q u ors, ” ( A m eri c a n Airli n es O n b o ar d S al es, a n n e x e d t o D ef.’s O p p’ n as E x. D, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 6 8- 1; s e e D ef.’s O p p’ n 3, 8 – 9). “[ R] es ol v[i n g] all a m bi g uiti es a n d dr a w[i n g] all r e as o n a bl e i nf er e n c es i n ” D ef e n d a nt’s f a v or as t h e n o n - m o v a nt, a r e as o n a bl e j ur y c o ul d fi n d t h at if S a nti a g o h a d a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e, h e w o ul d h a v e als o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d aft er c o nti n ui n g 22 t o dri n k d uri n g t h e fli g ht. R o dri g u ez v. Cit y of N e w Y or k , 2 9 1 F. S u p p. 3 d 3 9 6, 4 0 7 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 8) ( q u oti n g Vt. T e d d y B e ar C o., I n c. v. 1- 8 0 0- B e ar gr a m C o. , 3 7 3 F. 3 d 2 4 1, 2 4 4 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 4)). 2 I n a d diti o n, t h e n e g ati v e e vi d e n c e pr es e nt e d b y t h e t esti m o ni es of T arr a n d H a n n a h t h at t h e y d o n ot r e m e m b er s e ei n g a n i nt o xi c at e d p ass e n g er a n d t h e t esti m o ni es of P er ki ns a n d t h e p ass e n g er i n s e at 1 2 B t h at t h e y d o n ot r e m e m b er a n yt hi n g u n us u al, w hil e i ns uffi ci e nt o n t h eir o w n t o d ef e at Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt, als o pr o vi d e s o m e s up p ort f or t h e i nf er e n c e t h at S a nti a g o di d n ot a p p e ar i nt o xi c at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e. S e e E vi d e n c e , Bl a c k’s L a w Di cti o n ar y ( 1 1t h e d. 2 0 1 9). W hil e “ p ositi v e e vi d e n c e is or di n aril y t o pr e v ail o v er stri ctl y n e g ati v e e vi d e n c e, ” M or a n S c o w C or p. v. S. S. B ost o n , 3 4 2 F. S u p p. 2 1 6, 2 3 9 ( S. D. N. Y. 1 9 7 2), a n d w hil e c o urts h a v e h el d t h at n e g ati v e e vi d e n c e al o n e is n ot s uffi ci e nt t o cr e at e a 2 T h e C o urt fi n ds less p ers u asi v e D ef e n d a nt’s ar g u m e nt t h at Pl ai ntiffs’ c as e f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt “is e ntir el y pr e mis e d o n t h e d e p ositi o n t esti m o n y of A n di n o ” a n d t h e p ass e n g er i n 1 2 C, b ut t h at t h e t w o p ass e n g ers’ r e c oll e cti o ns of t h e fli g ht diff er. ( D ef.’s M e m. 3, 7.) At m ost, t h e p ass e n g ers’ r e c oll e cti o ns s uff er fr o m i n c o nsist e n ci es t h at ar e mi n or i n t h e c o nt e xt of a m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n Pl ai ntiffs’ u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g cl ai m. T h e p ass e n g er i n 1 2 C “r e m e m b er e d t h at S a nti a g o as k e d f or a dri n k pr e- d e p art ur e b ut w as d e ni e d s er vi c e, w hil e A n di n o r e m e m b er e d S a nti a g o as ki n g f or a dri n k pr e- d e p art ur e a n d b ei n g s er v e d. ” (I d. at 3 n. 3.) “ F urt h er, d uri n g t h e [f] li g ht,” t h e p ass e n g er i n 1 2 C “ t estifi e d t h at S a nti a g o l eft t h e r o w t o g o t o t h e b at hr o o m, a n d t h e n Pl ai ntiff f oll o w e d hi m, w hil e A n di n o r e m e m b er e d t h e r e v ers e. ” (I d.) T h es e mi n or i n c o nsist e n ci es ar e n ot m e a ni n gf ul i n d e ci di n g Pl ai ntiff’s m oti o n as t o t his cl ai m. W hil e it is tr u e t h at cr e di bilit y iss u es m a y n ot b e r es ol v e d o n s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt, J effr e ys v. Cit y of N e w Y or k , 4 2 6 F. 3 d 5 4 9, 5 5 3 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 5) ( “ Ass ess m e nts of cr e di bilit y a n d c h oi c es b et w e e n c o nfli cti n g v ersi o ns of t h e e v e nts ar e m att ers f or t h e j ur y, n ot f or t h e c o urt o n s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt. ” ( q u oti n g R ul e v. Bri n e, I n c. , 8 5 F. 3 d 1 0 0 2, 1 0 1 1 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 6))), “[ m]i n or i n c o nsist e n ci es o n i n c o ns e q u e nti al iss u es ar e t o b e e x p e ct e d, a n d d o n ot s uffi c e t o d ef e at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt, ” P hilli ps v. Cit y of Mi d dl et o w n , N o. 1 7-C V - 5 3 0 7, 2 0 2 1 W L 4 4 6 2 8 2 1, at * 1 1 ( S. D. N. Y. S e pt. 2 9, 2 0 2 1) ( c oll e cti n g c as es); s e e als o U nit e d St at es v. Gr e e n , N o. 1 9- C R - 6 1 6 4, 2 0 2 0 W L 5 8 1 0 0 1 1, at * 2 ( W. D. N. Y. S e pt. 3 0, 2 0 2 0) ( n oti n g t h at “[ a] dis cr e p a n c y as t o . . . a mi n or, n o n m at eri al f a ct, p arti c ul arl y w h er e it aris es fr o m a f ail ur e of r e c oll e cti o n, d o es n ot c all i nt o q u esti o n t h e cr e di bilit y of t h e r e m ai n d er of ” a wit n ess’s t esti m o n y). T h e C o urt d o es n ot c o nsi d er t h e mi n or a n d irr el e v a nt dis cr e p a n ci es i n t h e t w o p ass e n g ers’ t esti m o ni es i n ass essi n g t his m oti o n f or p arti al s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt. 23 g e n ui n e dis p ut e of m at eri al f a ct, s e e S a v ar es e v. Cit y of N e w Y or k , 5 4 7 F. S u p p. 3 d 3 0 5, 3 4 9 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 2 1), s u c h e vi d e n ce c a n n e v ert h el ess b e r el e v a nt. S e e U nit e d St at es v. G a ni as , 8 2 4 F. 3 d 1 9 9, 2 1 4 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 6) ( e x pl ai ni n g t h at f or e nsi c e vi d e n c e c a n t a k e t h e f or m of n e g ati v e e vi d e n c e); H ol m es v. H er n a n d ez , --- F. S u p p. 3 d ---, ---, 2 0 2 1 W L 4 2 4 4 7 5 6, at * 9 ( N. D. Ill. S e pt . 1 7, 2 0 2 1) ( e x pl ai ni n g t h at n e g ati v e e vi d e n c e c a n b e r eli a bl e a n d t h at “if a wit n ess w as i n a p ositi o n t o s e e or h e ar s o m et hi n g, a n d di d n ot, t h e n t h eir t esti m o n y of n ot-s e ei n g or n ot- h e ari n g c a n b e tr e at e d as t esti m o n y t h at t h e t hi n g t o b e s e e n di d n ot e xist t o b e s e e n ”); 8 8 C.J. S. Tri al § 4 1 0 ( 2 0 2 1) ( “ T h e w ei g ht t o b e gi v e n t o n e g ati v e e vi d e n c e is f or t h e j ur y t o d e ci d e. ”). Alt h o u g h n ot hi g hl y pr o b ati v e, t h e f a ct t h at m ulti pl e fli g ht att e n d a nts a n d p ass e n g ers d o n ot r e m e m b er o bs er vi n g a dr u n k p ass e n g er is r el e v a nt t o a d et er mi n ati o n as t o w h et h er S a nti a g o a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d w h e n h e b o ar d e d t h e pl a n e. D r a wi n g all r e as o n a bl e i nf er e n c es i n D ef e n d a nt’s f a v or, s e e A n d ers o n, 4 7 7 U. S. at 2 5 5, t h e C o urt d e ni es Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n Pl ai ntiffs’ cl ai m t h at D ef e n d a nt all o w e d S a nti a g o t o b o ar d Fli g ht 1 2 8 0 e v e n t h o u g h h e a p p e ar e d i nt o xi c at e d. S e e P est v. Bri d al W or ks of N e w Y or k, I n c. , 2 6 8 F. S u p p. 3 d 4 1 3, 4 2 1 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 7) ( “ Si n c e s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt is a n e xtr e m e r e m e d y, c utti n g off t h e ri g hts of t h e n o n- m o vi n g p art y t o pr es e nt t h eir c as e t o t h e j ur y, t h e C o urt s h o ul d n ot gr a nt s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt u nl ess ‘it is q uit e cl e ar w h at t h e tr ut h is [ a n d] t h at n o g e n ui n e iss u e r e m ai ns f or tri al.’ ” ( cit ati o n o mitt e d) ( alt er ati o n i n ori gi n al) ( q u oti n g A ul ett a v. T ull y , 5 7 6 F. S u p p. 1 9 1, 1 9 5 ( N. D. N. Y. 1 9 8 3))). d. Affi r m ati v e d ef e ns es Pl ai ntiffs s e e k s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt i n r el ati o n t o s e v e n of D ef e n d a nt’s t w e nt y-t w o affir m ati v e d ef e ns es. S p e cifi c all y, t h e y s e e k s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o ( 1) D ef e n d a nts’ t hir d a n d fift h affir m ati v e d ef e ns es, t h at Pl ai ntiff’s a cti o n is pr ee m pt e d b y f e d er al l a w; ( 2) D ef e n d a nts’ 24 f o urt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at Pl ai ntiffs h a v e f ail e d t o j oi n n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e p arti es u n d er F e d er al R ul e of Ci vil Pr o c e d ur e 1 9; ( 3 ) D ef e n d a nts’ si xt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at Pl ai ntiffs’ cl ai ms ar e barr e d b y t h e d o ctri n es of w ai v er a n d est o p p el; ( 4) t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nts’ s e v e nt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et-off f or all a m o u nts s u bj e ct t o s ettl e m e nt or p ai d or p a y a bl e b y c oll at er al s o ur c es; ( 5) D ef e n d a nts’ ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at t h e a bs e nt p arti es’ c ul p a bilit y m a y b e c o m p ut e d i nt o t h e a p p orti o n m e nt of t ot al c ul p a bilit y; a n d ( 6) t h e e xist e n c e of a c o v e n a nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nts’ t w e nt y-first affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et- off t o t h e e xt e nt t h at a c o v e n a nt n ot t o s u e w as gi v e n t o p ers o ns cl ai m e d t o b e li a bl e f or Pl ai ntiffs’ i nj ur y. ( Pls.’ M ot. 1 – 2; A ns w er ¶ ¶ 5 6 – 5 8, 6 9 – 7 1, 7 4, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 4 6.) Pl ai ntiffs ar g u e t h at t h er e is n o e vi d e n c e t o s u p p ort a n y of t h es e affir m ati v e d ef e ns es. ( Pls.’ M e m. 2 5 – 2 9.) D ef e n d a nt ar g u e s t h at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n its affir m ati v e d ef e ns es w o ul d b e pr e m at ur e b e c a us e “[ d]is c o v er y wit h r es p e ct t o Pl ai ntiffs is o n g oi n g i n t his c as e. ” ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 7 – 1 8.) Wit h r e g ar d t o its j oi n d er d ef e ns es, D ef e n d a nt als o ar g u es t h at c o ntr a r y t o Pl ai ntiffs’ ar g u m e nt t h at t h er e is n o e vi d e n c e of a n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y, “it is o b vi o us t h at L a n e’s all e g e d ass ail a nt — S a nti a g o — is a p ot e nti al d ef e n d a nt a n d p ossi bl y a n e c ess ar y p art y. ” ( I d. at 1 8.) I n a d diti o n, D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at Pl ai ntiffs ar e n ot e ntitl e d t o s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt r e g ar di n g a p p orti o n m e nt “ b e c a us e a p p orti o n m e nt of li a bilit y i n a p ers o n al i nj ur y a cti o n is t h e d ef a ult r ul e ”: “f or p ers o ns w h o s h o ul d h a v e b e e n n a m e d as d ef e n d a nts b e c a us e t h e y c a us e d or c o ntri b ut e d t o a pl ai ntiff’s i nj uri es, b ut w er e n ot n a m e d, T e x as, N e w Y or k, a n d Ari z o n a l a w all all o w t h eir p er c e nt a g es of li a bilit y t o b e a p p orti o n e d al o n g wit h t h e n a m e d d ef e n d a nt(s). ” ( I d. at 1 8 – 2 0.) A distri ct c o urt s h o ul d o nl y gr a nt s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt “[i]f aft er dis c o v er y , t h e n o n m o vi n g p art y ‘h as f ail e d t o m a k e a s uffi ci e nt s h o wi n g o n a n ess e nti al el e m e nt of [its] c as e 25 wit h r es p e ct t o w hi c h [it] h as t h e b ur d e n of pr o of.’ ” H ellstr o m v. U. S. D e p ’t of V et er a ns Aff airs , 2 0 1 F. 3 d 9 4, 9 7 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 0) ( alt er ati o n i n ori gi n al) ( q u oti n g B er g er v. U nit e d St at es, 8 7 F. 3 d 6 0, 6 5 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 6)); B er g er , 8 7 F. 3 d at 6 5 ( c o n cl u di n g “t h e gr a nt of s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt h er e w as pr e m at ur e ” b e c a us e t h e c o urt c o ul d n ot “c o n cl u d e t h at t h e p arti es h a d alr e a d y h a d ‘ a f ull y a d e q u at e o p p ort u nit y f or dis c o v er y’ w h e n t h e distri ct c o urt gr a nt e d s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt ” ( q u oti n g M el off v. N. Y. Lif e I ns. C o. , 5 1 F. 3 d 3 7 2, 3 7 5 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 5))); s e e als o S ut er a v. S c h eri n g C or p., 7 3 F. 3 d 1 3, 1 8 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 5) (r e v ersi n g s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt e nt er e d b ef or e a n y dis c o v er y h a d t a k e n pl a c e); Tr e b or S p orts w e ar C o., I n c., v. T h e Li mit e d St or es, I n c., 8 6 5 F. 2 d 5 0 6, 5 1 1 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 8 9) ( h ol di n g t h at t h e n o n- m o vi n g p art y “s h o ul d n ot b e ‘r ailr o a d e d’ i nt o his off er of pr o of i n o p p ositi o n t o s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt ” a n d “ m ust h a v e ‘h a d t h e o p p ort u nit y t o dis c o v er i nf or m ati o n t h at is ess e nti al t o his o p p ositi o n’ t o t h e m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt ” (first citi n g C el ot e x C or p. v. C atr ett , 4 7 7 U. S. 3 1 7, 3 2 6 ( 1 9 8 6); a n d t h e n citi n g A n d ers o n , 4 7 7 U. S. at 2 5 0 n. 5)). “ R ul e 5 6( d) of t h e F e d er al R ul es of Ci vil Pr o c e d ur e a ut h ori z es distri ct c o urts t o d ef er r uli n g o n a m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt — or t o d e n y t h e m oti o n alt o g et h er — ‘[i]f a n o n m o v a nt s h o ws b y affi d a vit or d e cl ar ati o n t h at, f or s p e cifi e d r e as o ns, it c a n n ot pr es e nt f a cts ess e nti al t o j ustif y its o p p ositi o n.’ ” Ass ’ n of C ar W as h O w n ers I n c. v. Cit y of N e w Y or k, 9 1 1 F. 3 d 7 4, 8 3 – 8 4 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 8) ( q u oti n g F e d. R. Ci v. P. 5 6( d)( 1)); s e e als o S ur a v. Zi m m er, I n c., 7 6 8 F. A p p ’ x 5 8, 5 9 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 9) ( “ R ul e 5 6( d) p er mits t h e distri ct c o urt t o d ef er s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt or p er mit a d diti o n al dis c o v er y w h e n t h e n o n m o v a nt fil es a n affi d a vit or d e cl ar ati o n st ati n g t h at, ‘f or s p e cifi e d r e as o ns, it c a n n ot pr es e nt f a cts ess e nti al t o j ustif y its o p p ositi o n.’ ” ( q u oti n g F e d. R. Ci v. P. 5 6( d))); Mill er v. W ol p off & A br a ms o n, L. L. P., 3 2 1 F. 3 d 2 9 2, 3 0 3 – 0 4 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 3). “ R ul e 5 6 als o a ut h ori z es distri ct c o urts t o ‘ all o w ti m e t o o bt ai n affi d a vits or d e cl ar ati o ns or t o t a k e dis c o v er y’ or t o ‘iss u e a n y ot h er a p pr o pri at e or d er.’ ” Ass ’ n of C ar W as h 26 O w n ers I n c., 9 1 1 F. 3 d at 8 3 – 8 4 ( q u oti n g F e d. R. Ci v. P. 5 6( d)( 2) –( 3)). T h e S e c o n d Cir c uit h as “ h el d t h at w h e n a p art y a d vis es t h e c o urt t h at it n e e ds dis c o v er y t o d ef e n d a g ai nst a m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt, ‘t h e c o urt s h o ul d d ef er d e cisi o n of t h e m oti o n u ntil t h e p art y h as h a d t h e o p p ort u nit y t o t a k e dis c o v er y a n d r e b ut t h e m oti o n.’ ” H al e bi a n v. B er v , 5 4 8 F. A p p ’ x 6 4 1, 6 4 6 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 3) (first citi n g F e d. R. Ci v. P. 5 6( d); a n d t h e n q u oti n g C o m. Cl e a ni n g S er vs., L L C v. C oli n S er v. S ys., I n c., 2 7 1 F. 3 d 3 7 4, 3 8 6 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 1)). i. S u m m a r y j u d g m e nt as t o D ef e n d a nt’s affi r m ati v e d ef e ns es is n ot p r e m at u r e D ef e n d a nt ’s ar g u m e nt t h at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt is pr e m at ur e is u n a v aili n g. Alt h o u g h dis c o v er y i n t his c as e is still o n g oi n g,3 D ef e n d a nt h as f ail e d t o s u b mit a n y affi d a vit or d e cl ar ati o n e x pl ai ni n g w h y f urt h er dis c o v er y is n e c ess ar y t o o p p os e Pl ai ntiffs ’ m oti o n. “[ T] h e f ail ur e t o fil e a n affi d a vit u n d er [ R ul e 5 6( d)] is its elf s uffi ci e nt gr o u n ds t o r ej e ct a cl ai m t h at t h e o p p ort u nit y f or dis c o v er y w as i n a d e q u at e. ” P a d di n gt o n P art n ers v. B o u c h ar d, 3 4 F. 3 d 1 1 3 2, 1 1 3 7 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 4) ( citi n g B urli n gt o n C o at F a ct or y W ar e h o us e C or p. v. Es prit D e C or p, 7 6 9 F. 2 d 9 1 9, 9 2 5 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 8 5)); s e e als o P ar k er v. F a nt asi a, 4 2 5 F. S u p p. 3 d 1 7 1, 1 8 4 – 8 5 ( S. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 9) ( d e n yi n g t h e pl ai ntiff ’s r e q u est f or a d diti o n al dis c o v er y i n r es p o ns e t o a m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt w h er e t h e pl ai ntiff f ail e d t o s u b mit a R ul e 5 6( d) d e cl ar ati o n); W h el e h a n v. B a n k of A m eri c a P e nsi o n Pl a n f or L e g a c y C os., 5 F. S u p p. 3 d 4 1 0, 4 2 0 – 2 1 ( W. D. N. Y. 2 0 1 4) (s a m e). T h e C o urt t h er ef or e r ej e cts D ef e n d a nt’s ar g u m e nt t h at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n t h es e iss u es is pr e m at ur e. 3 Dis c o v er y h as b e e n o n g oi n g si n c e e arl y 2 0 1 9, ( R e p ort of R ul e 2 6(f) Pl a n ni n g M e eti n g, D o c k et E ntr y N o. 1 8), a n d is c urr e ntl y s c h e d ul e d t o cl os e o n A pril 2 1, 2 0 2 2. ( Or d er d at e d J a n. 1 3, 2 0 2 2 .) 27 ii. D ef e n d a nt’s p r e e m pti o n affi r m ati v e d ef e ns e Pl ai ntiffs s e e k s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n D ef e n d a nt’s t hir d a n d fift h affir m ati v e d ef e ns es t h at t h e a cti o n is g o v er n e d b y t h e F e d er al A vi ati o n A ct of 1 9 5 8 ( “ F A A ”), 4 9 U. S. C. § 4 0 1 0 1 et s e q., a n d t h e Airli n e D er e g ul ati o n A ct ( “ A D A ”), 4 9 U. S. C. § 4 1 7 1 3, w hi c h t o g et h er pr e e m pt st at e l a w st a n d ar ds g o v er ni n g a vi ati o n s af et y, fli g ht o p er ati o ns, a n d air c arri er r at es, r o ut es, a n d s er vi c es. ( Pl.’s M ot. 1 – 3.) D ef e n d a nt d o es n ot o p p os e Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n o n t his iss u e. ( D efs.’ M e m. 5.) “I n d e ci di n g a n u n o p p os e d s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt m oti o n, ‘t h e distri ct c o urt m ust still ass ess w h et h er t h e m o vi n g p art y h a[s] f ulfill e d its b ur d e n of d e m o nstr ati n g t h at t h er e is n o g e n ui n e iss u e of m at eri al f a ct a n d its e ntitl e m e nt t o j u d g m e nt as a m att er of l a w.’ ” J o n es v. L a m o nt , 3 7 9 F. A p p’ x 5 8, 6 0 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 0) ( q u oti n g Vt. T e d d y B e ar C o ., 3 7 3 F. 3 d at 2 4 4). N ot a bl y, h o w e v er, “ a p arti al o p p ositi o n [t o a m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt] m a y i m pl y a n a b a n d o n m e nt of s o m e cl ai ms or d ef e ns es. ” J a c ks o n v. F e d er al E x p. , 7 6 6 F. 3 d 1 8 9, 1 9 6 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 4); s e e als o K o v a c o v. R o c k b est os- S ur pr e n a nt C a bl e C or p. , 8 3 4 F. 3 d 1 2 8, 1 4 3 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 1 6). T h us, “[ w] h er e a b a n d o n m e nt b y a c o u ns el e d p art y is n ot e x pli cit b ut s u c h a n i nf er e n c e m a y b e f airl y dr a w n fr o m t h e p a p ers a n d cir c u mst a n c es vi e w e d as a w h ol e, distri ct c o urts m a y c o n cl u d e t h at a b a n d o n m e nt w as i nt e n d e d. ” J a c ks o n , 7 6 6 F. 3 d at 1 9 6. D ef e n d a nt’s m e m or a n d u m st at es t h at D ef e n d a nt “ o p p os es Pl ai ntiffs’ M oti o n o n all iss u es e x c e pt ” pr e e m pti o n, ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 5), a n d c o n cl u d es t h at “[f] or t h e f or e g oi n g r e as o ns, e x c e pt o n t h e q u esti o n of pr e e m pti o n, Pl ai ntiffs’ M oti o n f or P arti al S u m m ar y J u d g m e nt s h o ul d b e d e ni e d i n its e ntir et y. ” (I d. at 2 0.) T h e C o urt t h er ef or e fi n ds t h at D ef e n d a nt h as a b a n d o n e d its pr e e m pti o n d ef e ns e a n d gr a nts Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o t his d ef e ns e. 28 iii. T h e C o u rt g r a nts Pl ai ntiffs’ su m m a r y j u d g m e nt m oti o n as t o D ef e n d a nt’s si xt e e nt h affi r m ati v e d ef e ns e a n d t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt o r c o v e n a nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s s e v e nt e e nt h a n d t w e nt y-fi rst affi r m ati v e d ef e ns es D ef e n d a nt d o es n ot p oi nt t o a n y e vi d e n c e i n t h e r e c or d s u p p orti n g its si xt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at Pl ai ntiff’s cl ai ms ar e b arr e d b y w ai v er a n d est o p p el; t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt r ais e d b y its s e v e nt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et-off f or a m o u nts s u bj e ct t o s ettl e m e nt or p ai d or p a y a bl e b y c oll at er al s o ur c es; or t h e e xist e n c e of a c o v e n a nt r ais e d b y its t w e nt y-first d ef e ns e, t h at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et-off i n r el ati o n t o a r el e as e or c o v e n a nt. (D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 7 – 1 8). N or d o es t h er e a p p e ar t o b e a n y s u c h e vi d e n c e as t o t h es e d ef e ns es . “ W h er e a pl ai ntiff us es a s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt m oti o n, i n p art, t o c h all e n g e t h e l e g al s uffi ci e n c y of a n affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, ” t h e pl ai ntiff “m a y s atisf y its R ul e 5 6 b ur d e n b y s h o wi n g ‘t h at t h er e is a n a bs e n c e of e vi d e n c e t o s u p p ort [ a n ess e nti al el e m e nt of] t h e [ n o n- m o vi n g p art y ’s] c as e .’ ” F. D.I. C. v. Gi a m m ett ei , 3 4 F. 3 d 5 1, 5 4 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 4) ( q u oti n g Di C ol a v. S wiss R e H ol di n g ( N ort h A m eri c a), I n c., 9 9 6 F. 2 d 3 0 ( 2 d Cir. 1 9 9 3)); s e e als o Lif e g u ar d Li c e nsi n g C or p. v. A n n Ar b or T- S hirt C o., L L C , N o. 1 5-C V - 8 4 5 9, 2 0 1 8 W L 3 3 6 4 3 8 8, at * 1 ( S. D. N. Y. J ul y 9, 2 0 1 8) ( “A n affir m ati v e d ef e ns e c a n b e dis miss e d o n a s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt m oti o n w h e n t h at d ef e ns e is u ns u p p ort e d b y a n y e vi d e n c e i n t h e r e c or d. ”). T h e C o urt t h er ef or e gr a nts Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n D ef e n d a n t’s si xt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e ( w ai v er or est o p p el), t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s s e v e nt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, a n d t h e e xist e n c e of a c o v e n a nt n ot t o s u e r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e. 29 i v. T h e C o u rt g r a nts i n p a rt Pl ai ntiffs’ su m m a r y j u d g m e nt m oti o n as t o D ef e n d a nt’s f o u rt h a n d ei g ht e e nt h affi r m ati v e d ef e ns es D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o its f o urt h a n d ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns es , w hi c h c o n c er n j oi n d er, w o ul d n ot b e pr o p er b e c a us e, c o ntr ar y t o Pl ai ntiffs’ ar g u m e nt t h at t h er e is n o e vi d e n c e of a n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y, “it is o b vi o us t h at L a n e’s all e g e d ass ail a nt — S a nti a g o —is a p ot e nti al d ef e n d a nt a n d p ossi bl y a n e c ess ar y p art y. ” ( D ef.’s M e m 1 8.) I n a d diti o n, D ef e n d a nts’ ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e is “[t] h at Pl ai ntiffs c o ul d wit h d u e dili g e n c e, h a v e o bt ai n e d p ers o n al j uris di cti o n o v er t ortf e as or n ot a p art y t o t his l a ws uit, a n d w h o ar e n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e t o a j ust a dj u di c ati o n of h er cl ai ms, a n d t h us t h e c ul p a bilit y of t h es e miss i n g or a bs e nt t ortf e as ors m a y b e c o m p ut e d i n t o t h e a p p orti o n m e nt of t ot al c ul p a bilit y c a usi n g t h e s u bj e ct o c c urr e n c e. ” ( A ns w er ¶ 7 1.) D ef e n d a nt ar g u es t h at Pl ai ntiffs ar e n ot e ntitl e d t o s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt r e g ar di n g a p p orti o n m e nt “ b e c a us e a p p orti o n m e nt of li a bilit y i n a p ers o n al i nj ur y a cti o n is t h e d ef a ult r ul e ”: “f or p ers o ns w h o s h o ul d h a v e b e e n n a m e d as d ef e n d a nts b e c a us e t h e y c a us e d or c o ntri b ut e d t o a pl ai ntiff’s i nj uri es, b ut w er e n ot n a m e d, T e x as, N e w Y or k, a n d Ari z o n a l a w all all o w t h eir p er c e nt a g es of li a bilit y t o b e a p p orti o n e d al o n g wit h t h e n a m e d d ef e n d a nt(s). ” ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 8 – 2 0.) 1. F o u rt h j oi n d e r affi r m ati v e d ef e ns e Si m pl y n a mi n g S a nti a g o as a p ossi bl y n e c ess ar y p art y is i ns uffi ci e nt t o s ur vi v e s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n D ef e n d a nt’s f o urt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e. D ef e n d a nt’s o nl y ar g u m e nt t h at S a nti a g o is a n e c ess ar y p art y is t h at “it is o b vi o us ” t h at S a nti a g o is “ a p ot e nti al d ef e n d a nt. ” ( D ef.’s O p p’ n 1 8.) T h er e is n o r ul e, h o w e v er, t h at e v er y p ossi bl e d ef e n d a nt t o a t ort a cti o n is a n e c ess ar y or i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y, i n d e e d, t h e r ul e is t h at t h e y ar e n ot. S e e T e m pl e v. S y nt h es C or p., Lt d. , 4 9 8 U. S. 5, 7 ( 1 9 9 0) ( “It h as l o n g b e e n t h e r ul e t h at it is n ot n e c ess ar y f or all j oi nt t ortf e as ors t o b e n a m e d as d ef e n d a nts i n a si n gl e l a ws uit. ”); Dir e ct E n er g y M kt g. 30 Lt d. v. D u k e/ L o uis Dr e yf us, L L C, 5 0 F. A p p’ x 4 6 9, 4 7 3 ( 2 d Cir. 2 0 0 2) ( “ T h e f a ct t h at pl ai ntiff mi g ht h a v e b e e n a bl e t o est a blis h t h e li a bilit y of a n ot h er e ntit y n ot pr es e nt i n t h e s uit . . . di d n ot m a k e t h at p ut ati v e d ef e n d a nt a n i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y i n t h e e xisti n g s uit. ”); All e n e x r el. All e n v. D e vi n e , 6 7 0 F. S u p p. 2 d 1 6 4, 1 6 9 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 0 9) ( “ G e n er all y, j oi nt t ortf e as ors ar e n ot n e c ess ar y p arti es u n d er R ul e 1 9( a). ”); Pl a n ni n g & I n v esti n g C o., S. A. v. H e ml o c k , 5 0 F. R. D. 4 8, 5 0 ( S. D. N. Y. 1 9 7 0) ( “ E a c h of t h e d ef e n d a nts h er ei n ar e all e g e d t o b e j oi nt t ortf e asors, h o w e v er, a n d as s u c h n ot i n dis p e ns a bl e t o a n a cti o n a g ai nst a n y o n e of t h e m. ”). I n t h e a bs e n c e of f a cts or l a w s h o wi n g t h at S a nti a g o is a n e c ess ar y or i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y, t h e C o urt gr a nts Pl ai ntiff’s m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n D ef e n d a nt’s f o urt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e. S e e H o m e D esi g n S er vs., I n c. v. St ar w o o d C o nstr., I n c., 8 0 1 F. S u p p. 2 d 1 1 1 1, 1 1 2 0 – 2 1 ( D. C ol o. 2 0 1 1) ( gr a nti n g s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n a d ef e ns e of f ail ur e t o j oi n w h er e d ef e n d a nts “[ h a d ] n ot pr o vi d e d a n y p ers u asi v e l e g al a ut h orit y or ar g u m e nt t o s h o w t h at ” t h e t hir d p art y’s r ol e “ w o ul d r eli e v e [t h e d ef e n d a nts] of li a bilit y f or t h eir o w n a cti o ns or t h at [t h e t hir d p art y] is a n i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y ”); B ail e y - P. V. S. O xi d es, L L C v. S & K P a c k a gi n g, I n c., N o. 0 8-C V - 1 5 9 6, 2 0 0 9 W L 3 2 9 4 8 6 2, at * 2 ( W. D. P a. 2 0 0 9) ( gr a nti n g s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n d ef e n d a nt’s affir m ati v e d ef e ns e of f ail ur e t o j oi n b e c a us e “j oi nt t ortf e as ors ar e n ot i n dis p e ns a bl e p arti es ” a n d t h e d ef e n d a nt h a d n ot “ pr off er e d a n y f a cts or l a w t h at w o ul d s u p p ort t h eir e ntitl e m e nt t o pr o c e e d o n t his d ef e ns e ”); N at’l B a n k of C a n a d a v. Art e x I n d us., I n c. , 6 2 7 F. S u p p. 6 1 0, 6 1 4, 6 1 6 ( S. D. N. Y. 1 9 8 6) ( gr a nti n g s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt w h er e t h e d ef e n d a nt r ais e d a n affir m ati v e d ef e ns e of f ail ur e t o j oi n b ut “ m a d e n o s h o wi n g ” t h at t h e all e g e dl y i n dis p e ns a bl e p art y “ h as a n u n pr ot e ct e d i nt er est i n t h e c as e ”). 31 2. Ei g ht e e nt h j oi n d e r affi r m ati v e d ef e ns e D ef e n d a nt’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e is t h at “ Pl ai ntiffs c o ul d wit h d u e dili g e n c e, h a v e o bt ai n e d p ers o n al j uris di cti o n o v er t ortf e as or[s] n ot a p art y t o t his l a ws uit, a n d w h o ar e n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e t o a j ust a dj u di c ati o n of h er cl ai ms, a n d t h us t h e c ul p a bilit y of t h es e missi n g or a bs e nt t ortf e as ors m a y b e c o m p ut e d i nt o t h e a p p orti o n m e nt of t ot al cul p a bilit y c a usi n g t h e s u bj e ct o c c urr e n c e. ” ( A ns w er ¶ 7 1.) B e c a us e , as dis c uss e d a b o v e, t h e C o urt gr a nts Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt o n D ef e n d a nt’s d ef e ns e t h at Pl ai ntiffs h a v e f ail e d t o j oi n p arti es t h at ar e n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e u n der R ul e 1 9 , t h e C ourt als o gr a nts Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or s u m m ar y j u d g m e nt as t o t h e p art of D ef e n d a nt’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e st ati n g t h at “ Pl ai ntiffs c o ul d wit h d u e dili g e n c e, h a v e o bt ai n e d p ers o n al j uris di cti o n o v er t ortf e as or[s] n ot a p art y t o t his l a ws uit, a n d w h o ar e n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e t o a j ust a dj u di c ati o n of h er cl ai ms. ” 4 H o w e v er, it is n ot y et a p pr o pri at e at t his st a g e i n t h e liti g ati o n t o d et er mi n e t h e p art of D ef e n d a nt’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e t h at c o n c er ns t h e e xt e nt t o w hi c h a n y p art y or n o n p art y is li a bl e f or Pl ai ntiffs’ i nj uri es. T h e C o urt t h er ef or e r es er v es f or l at er d et er mi n ati o n w h et h er D ef e n d a nt h a s s atisfi e d t h e crit eri a f or a p p orti o n m e nt of li a bilit y u n d er w hi c h e v er st at e’s s u bst a nti v e l a w will g o v er n all o c ati o n of li a bilit y i n t his a cti o n . S e e E n d ur a n c e A m eri c a n S p e ci alt y I ns. C o. v. Willi a m Kr a m er & Ass o cs., L L C , N o. 1 8-C V - 1 9 2, 2 0 2 0 W L 5 5 4 8 8 5 4, at * 6 ( D. C o n n. S e pt. 1 6, 2 0 2 0) ( “ A cl ai m f or c o ntri b uti o n is pr e m at ur e w h e n j u d g m e nt h as n ot y et b e e n o bt ai n e d. ”); U. S. U n d er writ ers I ns. C o. v. K u m G a n g, I n c., 4 4 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 3 4 8, 3 5 3 – 5 4 ( E. D. N. Y. 2 0 0 6) (st ati n g t h at “it w o ul d b e pr e m at ur e t o pr os p e cti v el y d et er mi n e [i ns ur ers’] 4 T h e C o urt ass u m es t h at “ n e c ess ar y ” a n d “i n dis p e ns a bl e ” ar e us e d i n t h e s e ns e t h at t h e y ar e us e d i n F e d er al R ul e of Ci vil Pr o c e d ur e 1 9. 32 r el ati v e fi n a n ci al o bli g ati o ns t o t h e pl ai ntiff i n t h e u n d erl yi n g a cti o n w h e n n o j u d g m e nt h as y et b e e n o bt ai n e d ”); s e e als o P a d ul a, 8 4 N. Y. 2 d at 5 2 2 ( e x pl ai ni n g t h at N e w Y or k’s c h oi c e- of-l a w r ul es a n al y z e c o n d u ct- all o c ati n g r ul es diff er e ntl y t h a n l oss-all o c ati n g r ul es). III. C o n cl usi o n F or t h e f or e g oi n g re as o n s , t h e C o urt gr a nts i n p art a n d d e ni es i n p art Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n f or su m m ar y j u d g me nt. T h e C o urt ( 1) d eni es Pl ai ntiffs’ m oti o n as t o Pl ai ntiff s’ cl ai m t h at D ef e n d a nt p er mitt e d t h e u nl a wf ul b o ar di n g of a n i nt o xic at e d p ers o n; ( 2) gra nts Pl ai ntiffs ’ m ot i o n as t o ( a) D ef e n d a nts’ t hir d a n d fift h affir m ati v e d ef e ns es, t h at t his a cti o n is pr e e m pt e d b y f e d er al l a w; ( b) D ef e n d a nt’s f o urt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at Pl ai ntiffs h a v e f ail e d t o j oi n n e c ess ar y a n d/ or i n dis p e ns a bl e p arti es; ( c) si xt e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e , th at Pl ai ntiffs’ cl ai ms ar e barr e d b y w ai v er a n d est o p p el; ( d) t h e e xist e n c e of a s ettl e m e nt rais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s s e v e nt e e nt h aff ir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et-off for all a m o u nts s u bj e ct t o s ettl e m e nt or p ai d or p a y a bl e b y c oll at er al s o ur c es; a n d ( e) t h e e xist e n c e of a c o v e n a nt r ais e d b y D ef e n d a nt’s t w ent y- first affir m ati v e d ef e ns e , th at D ef e n d a nt is e ntitl e d t o a s et-off d u e t o a c o v e n a nt n ot t o su e; a n d ( 3) gr a nts Pl ai ntiff’s m ot i o n i n p art as t o D ef e n d a nt ’s ei g ht e e nt h affir m ati v e d ef e ns e, t h at a bs e nt p arti es’ c ul p a bilit y m a y b e c o m p ut e d i nt o t h e a p p orti o n m e nt of t ot al cul p a bilit y. D at e d: A pril 8, 2 0 2 2 Br o o kl y n, N e w Y or k S O O R D E R E D: s/ M K B M A R G O K. B R O DI E U nit e d St at es Distri ct J u d g e 33

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